A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

In many parts of the world, traditional landscapes once dominated by wild herbivores are undergoing dramatic changes.&nbsp;Livestock grazing has replaced native grazers, leading to shifts in soil composition, plant diversity, and the delicate balance of predator-prey interactions. 



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grazing-animals-have-an-unexpected-role-in-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">transformations</a> are often subtle, unfolding over years, but their consequences can be far-reaching.



A long-term study in the Spiti valley of the Himalayas sheds light on how this shift is affecting ground-dwelling arthropods, including spiders, ticks, and mites. 



The findings reveal a concerning trend - spider populations are dwindling while disease-carrying organisms such as ticks and mites are thriving. 



These changes have direct implications for biodiversity, ecological stability, and even human health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-livestock-grazing-the-basics">Global livestock grazing - the basics</h2>



The expansion of livestock grazing areas has been reshaping landscapes around the world for decades. As global demand for meat and dairy products grows, ranchers and agribusinesses clear more land for cattle, sheep, and other grazing animals. 



In places like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-amazon-rainforest-is-approaching-widespread-collapse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Amazon rainforest</a>, vast stretches of trees are cut down to create pastures, contributing to deforestation and habitat loss. 



Grasslands, savannas, and even arid regions are also being converted into grazing land, often at the cost of native ecosystems. 



Some regions are turning to regenerative grazing techniques, which involve rotating animals across different pastures to mimic natural grazing patterns and allow the land to recover. 



Others are exploring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/increasing-plant-based-food-production-would-have-extremely-positive-impact/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant-based</a> alternatives and lab-grown meat to reduce pressure on the planet. 



The challenge is balancing food production with environmental sustainability, and as global appetites grow, finding solutions becomes even more urgent.



While livestock farming plays a major role in feeding the world, its rapid expansion raises a multitude of concerns, many of which we will discuss in this article.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spiders-in-livestock-grazed-areas">Spiders in livestock-grazed areas</h2>



The researchers found that livestock-grazed areas had fewer spiders but more grasshoppers, ticks, and mites. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rethinking-arachnid-evolution-the-surprising-history-of-spiders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Spiders</a> play a crucial role in maintaining ecological balance by controlling insect populations.



Study co-author Sumanta Bagchi is an associate professor at the Centre for Ecological Sciences (<a href="https://ces.iisc.ac.in" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CES</a>), Indian Institute of Science (IISc).



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/save-a-spider-day-protecting-our-connection-with-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Spiders</a> are predators; their ecological roles are similar to wolves, lions, and tigers. A low abundance of spiders can release grasshoppers from predator control, and lead to many downstream changes in an ecosystem. Together, these effects alter material and energy flow,” explained Bagchi.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-replacing-wild-herbivores-with-livestock">Replacing wild herbivores with livestock</h2>



Bagchi and his team have studied livestock’s impact on Spiti valley <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seaweed-supplements-reduce-methane-in-grazing-cattle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> for over 15 years. They note that wild herbivores like yak and ibex once thrived globally but are now confined to protected areas. Elsewhere, domesticated animals dominate.



For the study, the researchers tracked over 25,000 arthropods from 88 taxa, including spiders, ticks, mites, bees, wasps, and grasshoppers. 



They monitored fenced plots with either wild or domestic grazers and analyzed soil moisture, pH, and vegetation biomass.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disrupting-arthropod-habitats">Disrupting arthropod habitats</h2>



Shamik Roy, former PhD student at CES and co-first author, pointed out that arthropods have long-established ties with native <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/restored-grasslands-bring-more-peace-to-africa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">grazers</a>.



“Vegetation and soil biotic and abiotic variables are intertwined in complex ways that we are still unravelling. Arthropods heavily depend on them for food and home, an association developed over centuries with native grazers in the ecosystem,” noted Roy.



Replacing these grazers disrupts arthropod populations. The study found that spiders declined in livestock-grazed areas, while ticks and mites flourished. 



The reasons behind spider declines are unclear, but reduced prey availability and vegetation changes may contribute.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-increasing-disease-carrying-arthropods">Increasing disease-carrying arthropods</h2>



Pronoy Baidya, former PhD student at CES and co-first author, highlights a concerning trend. 



“One of the most surprising observations was the massive difference in tick and mite abundance between native grazers and livestock,” Baidya said.



Eighty percent of cattle worldwide carry ticks, which poses risks to both animals and humans. “This is a major concern for zoonotic diseases and One Health,” said Baidya.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-livestock-grazing-and-vegetation">Livestock grazing and vegetation</h2>



Livestock grazing affects vegetation structure and soil health in complex ways. The study revealed that areas with domestic grazers had different plant compositions compared to those with native herbivores. 



Changes in plant types influence arthropod diversity and alter food availability for different species.



Soil conditions, including moisture and pH levels, also shift under livestock grazing. These changes impact microbial communities, further influencing the ecosystem. 



Healthy soil supports diverse vegetation, which in turn sustains a balanced arthropod population.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-and-land-management">Conservation and land management</h2>



To mitigate these effects, the researchers suggest reintroducing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grazing-succession-animal-herbivore-mass-migration-serengeti/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">native</a> herbivores and monitoring vector-borne diseases. Conservation policies should focus on balancing livestock grazing and preserving ecosystems.



“Currently, most of the commons are rather mismanaged, allowing people from villages to unsustainably utilise these commons for their livelihoods, and in the process denying the local herbivores their grazing areas,” said Baidya.



“Our study will hopefully be an example which may nudge governments to take serious steps for freeing up the commons first and then starting proper ecological restoration of these lands.”



Restoring wild herbivores and managing grazing lands could help rebuild ecosystems and reduce disease risks. 



These changes require action to protect biodiversity and maintain ecological balance. Sustainable land-use practices and better management of grazing areas can prevent further ecological disruption.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/eap.3091" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecological Applications</a>.



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Livestock grazing is changing soil, plants, and insect populations

In many parts of the world, traditional landscapes once dominated...

Most people think wrinkles, graying hair, and a few creaks in the knees define aging. Yet scientists have spent decades exploring whether these signs, along with genetic mutations, tell the whole truth about growing older.



Early research suggests that <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/genomics-and-health/epigenetics/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">epigenetics</a> might help us measure how our bodies grow older, but what actually pushes these epigenetic “clocks” forward has been heavily debated.



The answer may involve unexpected links between random genetic changes and the epigenetic patterns found in older cells, according to Dr. Steven Cummings from Sutter Health’s California Pacific Medical Center Research Institute.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-do-mutations-control-biological-age">Do mutations control biological age?</h2>



Scientists once thought that DNA mutations were the main culprits behind the decline in health we see with age.



Previous research has shown that somatic mutations, which are genetic changes acquired over a lifetime, occur more often in older tissues. Other studies noted that not all aspects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-tea-every-day-proven-studies-to-delay-biological-aging-in-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aging</a> could be blamed on these changes alone.



This curiosity set the stage for new research on the processes sitting “on top” of DNA, known as epigenetic changes. 



Epigenetic modifications do not alter the core DNA sequence. Instead, they shift the activity of genes, and appear to follow consistent patterns as people age. Scientists measure these patterns with tests called epigenetic clocks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-random-mutations-fit-in">How random mutations fit in</h2>



The recent study used tumor and noncancerous tissue samples from thousands of patients to see if they could track how mutations and epigenetic marks matched up. 



The researchers noticed a striking overlap. Once a random mutation appeared, surrounding CpG sites often showed significant shifts in a specific epigenetic mark called methylation.



The scientists found that mutated spots had a reduced level of methylation. When these changes showed up, many nearby spots either gained or lost methylation too.



Ultimately, the researchers found that the overall methylation patterns reliably tracked a person’s age, hinting at a tight bond between random genetic errors and the chemical marks that define <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36206857/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">epigenetic clocks</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-do-mutations-speed-up-aging">Do mutations speed up aging?</h2>



“This is very clear evidence of a relationship,” said Dr. Cummings. He emphasized that the correlation between mutations and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-the-cellular-mortality-timer-that-dictates-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">epigenetic changes</a> leaves room for two big possibilities. One idea is that both changes are triggered by an unknown source of aging.&nbsp;



Another possibility is that somatic mutations gradually push these clocks forward. This would mean that reversing epigenetic changes may not solve the biggest problems associated with aging.



The researchers also noticed that once a cytosine base in DNA gains a methyl group, it becomes more likely to mutate. This can create a chain reaction in which each new mutation influences future epigenetic shifts. 



Scientists say more studies will help explain which event happens first, or if both swirl together in a complex cycle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fresh-angles-on-health-and-disease">Fresh angles on health and disease</h2>



Epigenetic clocks have long been used to spot tissues that appear “older” or “younger” than expected for a given person’s chronological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aging-hotspot-found-in-the-brain-may-hold-the-key-to-longevity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">age</a>. 



These measurements often show up in discussions of early disease risk or overall lifespan. Such clocks may even prove valuable in predicting which treatments will work best for certain age-related conditions.



Still, experts warn that the actual drivers behind these epigenetic signals need more research. In some labs, investigators plan to create controlled mutations in cultured cells, then watch how epigenetic marks shift over time. 



Others hope to follow human subjects over the years, collecting samples at different intervals so that real aging patterns can be observed in action.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-mutations-and-aging">Future research on mutations and aging</h2>



Researchers are also looking at diseases tied to heightened mutation rates. Such conditions might give extra clues about whether these random genetic changes truly lead to faster aging.



Scientists are curious whether preventing new mutations, improving DNA repair, or slowing epigenetic changes can significantly extend a healthy lifespan.



Although there is excitement in the scientific community, finding the exact mechanics behind aging is tricky. More data will help show if both the mutations and epigenetic marks merely act as signals of a deeper aging process.



As Dr. Cummings suggested, if mutations are the actual trigger, then resetting epigenetic clocks alone may not be enough to reduce certain age-related health risks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-hope-and-caution">Balancing hope and caution</h2>



For the average person, the concept of “biological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/muscles-defy-aging-with-remarkable-resilience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">age</a>” might still feel like a puzzle. Researchers, however, see these new findings as a chance to broaden our understanding of everything that happens inside aging cells. 



Any further understanding of the basic mechanisms that are at play are going to ultimately help to advance the field.



By testing how cells respond to targeted epigenetic modifications, scientists hope to clarify whether adjusting these markers can deliver practical health benefits. Their findings, along with long-term observations of how mutations appear in various tissues, could be vital in refining current anti-aging tools.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43587-024-00794-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Aging</a>.



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Causes of biological aging are much different than we thought

Most people think wrinkles, graying hair, and a few creaks...

A small weekly dose of moderate to vigorous exercise - just 35 minutes - could significantly lower an older adult’s chances of developing dementia, according to a new study.



Led by the <a href="https://publichealth.jhu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health</a>, the research found that even older people who are frail appear to benefit from this low level of activity. 



The results suggest that physical activity is an accessible way for many seniors to protect their cognitive health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-dementia-risk-with-exercise">Reducing dementia risk with exercise</h2>



The researchers analyzed data from nearly 90,000 adults living in the United Kingdom. Each participant wore a wrist-based device that recorded their physical activity for a week, and they were then followed over an average period of 4.4 years to see who developed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/risk-of-dementia-is-much-higher-than-previously-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dementia</a>.



The findings were striking: compared to participants who recorded zero moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, those who achieved as little as 35 minutes per week had a 41% reduced risk of being diagnosed with dementia.&nbsp;



Greater amounts of physical activity correlated with even lower risks: 60% lower for 35–69.9 minutes, 63% lower for 70–139.9 minutes, and 69% lower for 140 or more minutes.



Study lead author Amal Wanigatunga is an assistant professor of epidemiology at the Bloomberg School.&nbsp;



“Our findings suggest that increasing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fitness-focused-medicine-physical-activity-reduces-chronic-disease-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">physical activity</a>, even as little as five minutes per day, can reduce dementia risk in older adults,” explained Wanigatunga.



“This adds to a growing body of evidence that some exercise is better than nothing, especially with regard to an aging-related disorder that affects the brain that currently has no cure.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dementia-risks-and-the-role-of-exercise">Dementia risks and the role of exercise</h2>



Dementia, often caused by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-disease-attacks-the-brain-in-two-separate-phases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer’s</a> disease, is highly prevalent among older populations - about seven million individuals in the United States alone. One in three people over the age of 85 is affected, and the numbers are expected to rise as the population ages.



Scientists have long studied how lifestyle factors might reduce dementia risk, pointing to better management of cholesterol, blood pressure, and blood sugar, alongside increased physical activity. However, it has been less clear how small or large an exercise dose should be to help protect the brain.&nbsp;



Current guidelines in both the U.S. and the U.K. recommend 150 minutes of moderate-intensity exercise each week (roughly 20 minutes per day). While beneficial, that target may intimidate some older adults - particularly those who are frail or limited by mobility issues.



The new data suggest that even a fraction of the recommended time could deliver meaningful protection against dementia. The researchers took special note of participants who met criteria for “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flavonol-rich-foods-reduce-the-risk-of-developing-frailty/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frailty</a>” or “pre-frailty” and found that low volumes of exercise were associated with lower dementia risk in those groups as well. 



“This suggests that even frail or nearly frail older adults might be able to reduce their dementia risk through low-dose exercise,” Wanigatunga said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-limitations-and-future-directions">Study limitations and future directions</h2>



Because this study was not a clinical trial, it cannot conclusively prove that exercise itself prevents dementia.&nbsp;



To reduce the possibility of reverse causation - i.e., that undiagnosed dementia caused people to move less - the team repeated their analysis after excluding dementia diagnoses that occurred in the first two years of follow-up.&nbsp;



The protective link between activity and lower dementia risk remained strong, adding credibility to the idea that movement itself helps preserve cognitive function.



The authors call for additional research to confirm these results through randomized clinical trials. They see “low-dose” exercise as a potentially critical step for seniors - especially those who struggle to meet higher targets.&nbsp;



By encouraging just a few minutes per day and building up gradually, more people might achieve at least 35 minutes of moderate or vigorous activity per week and thus lower their odds of cognitive decline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dementia-risk-in-older-adults">Dementia risk in older adults</h2>



These findings are particularly relevant given the growing number of older adults worldwide and the significant impact dementia can have on individuals, families, and healthcare systems.&nbsp;



Although some may find it difficult to dedicate 20 minutes each day to exercise, the study demonstrates that even small increments of movement - brief walks, light gardening, or gentle workouts - can add up to better brain health.



For now, the message is clear: a little bit of exercise is better than none at all, and that small effort might yield substantial rewards.&nbsp;



By broadening access to physical activity for older adults - especially those who feel constrained by frailty - health practitioners could take an important step toward reducing the burden of dementia in an aging society.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.jamda.com/article/S1525-8610(24)00879-X/abstract" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of the American Medical Directors Association</a>.



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Small doses of exercise can greatly reduce dementia risk

A small weekly dose of moderate to vigorous exercise -...

Scientists recently shared news of a particle event that has sparked excitement in the physics community. One of the most energetic neutrinos ever recorded was observed in the Mediterranean Sea by the ARCA detector of the KM3NeT project.



The astounding neutrino, named KM3-230213A, has caught global attention.&nbsp;Researchers estimate its energy at about 220 million billion.



“KM3NeT has begun to probe a range of energy and sensitivity where detected neutrinos may originate from extreme astrophysical phenomena," said Paschal Coyle, a researcher at the National Centre for Scientific Research (<a href="https://www.cnrs.fr/fr/le-cnrs" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CNRS</a>).



"This first ever detection of a neutrino of hundreds of PeV opens a new chapter in neutrino astronomy and a new observational window on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-gravity-search-south-pole-neutrinos-experiment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Universe</a>.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysterious-elementary-particles">Mysterious elementary particles</h2>



Neutrinos travel across the universe, slipping through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-coronae-borealis-nova-explosion-nearby-star-light-up-earths-skies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a> and planets without much disturbance. 



For decades, scientists have aimed to spot ultra-high-energy neutrinos to shed light on cosmic accelerators. 



The <a href="https://www.km3net.org/about-km3net/collaboration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">KM3NeT Collaboration</a> unites more than 360 experts from 68 institutions in 21 countries.



“Neutrinos are one of the most mysterious of elementary particles. They have no electric charge, almost no mass and interact only weakly with matter. They are special cosmic messengers,” said Rosa Coniglione, a researcher at the <a href="https://home.infn.it/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">INFN National Institute for Nuclear Physics</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-deep-sea-sensors-detect-neutrinos">How deep-sea sensors detect neutrinos</h2>



KM3NeT is a sprawling setup resting on the seabed, composed of two detectors called ARCA and ORCA. 



ARCA is located about 50 miles from <a href="https://www.italia.it/en/sicily/portopalodicapopassero" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Portopalo di Capo Passero</a>, Sicily, at a depth of 11,319 feet. ORCA is positioned near Toulon, France, at a depth of 8,038 feet. 



Each site serves a distinct goal, with ARCA tuned for high-energy neutrinos and ORCA for lower-energy neutrinos.



The detectors depend on photomultipliers nestled within glass spheres. 



When a cosmic neutrino collides with water molecules, faint bluish light appears. The sensors collect that light, letting researchers map the neutrino’s journey.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-remarkable-single-muon">Remarkable single muon</h2>



ARCA picked up a single <a href="https://www.energy.gov/science/doe-explainsmuons" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">muon</a>, which signaled a neutrino interaction close by. Its path across the detector left a trail that triggered a large number of active sensors. 



This confirmed the neutrino was <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-dandelion-year-1181-leaves-behind-zombie-star-defying-death/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic</a> in origin rather than coming from local backgrounds.



“To determine the direction and energy of this neutrino required a precise calibration of the telescope and sophisticated track reconstruction algorithms,” said Aart Heijboer, KM3NeT Physics and Software Manager.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-origins-of-high-energy-neutrinos">Origins of high-energy neutrinos </h2>



Scientists suggest that such high-energy neutrinos could come from cataclysmic sources like supernova remnants or supermassive black holes.



Interactions between cosmic rays and other matter or photons can also create these neutrinos. 



Some of the most energetic cosmic rays in the universe may bump into the cosmic microwave background, producing what researchers call “cosmogenic” neutrinos.



Studying these events may unmask fresh secrets of the universe, offering a direct clue about the places and processes that fling particles to unimaginable energies. 



As these neutrinos fly mostly unimpeded from their source, they can deliver information that light or charged particles cannot.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advancing-neutrino-astronomy">Advancing neutrino astronomy </h2>



The ARCA site will eventually include 230 detection units, while the ORCA site will have 115. Each unit features 18 high-tech optical modules, and altogether, KM3NeT will span over a cubic kilometer of water.&nbsp;



Miles Lindsey Clark is the KM3NeT Technical Project Manager and research engineer at the CNRS - Astroparticle and Cosmology laboratory in France.



“The scale of KM3NeT, eventually encompassing a volume of about one cubic kilometer with a total of about 200,000 photomultipliers, along with its extreme location in the abyss of the Mediterranean Sea, demonstrates the extraordinary efforts required to advance neutrino astronomy and particle physics,” said Clark.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-capturing-a-rare-event">Capturing a rare event</h2>



Though the installation is incomplete, ARCA was able to catch one of the rarest events in nature. With advanced calibration and data analysis, teams extracted the trajectory and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-travels-back-in-time-to-better-understand-supernovae-science/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">energy details</a> of this neutrino. 



Since it most likely entered the water with more than 220 PeV of energy, that single neutrino opens the door to more surprises as KM3NeT continues to grow.



Such an event supports the existence of even higher-energy cosmic neutrinos. Different from lower-energy detections, these ultra-high-energy signals hint that distinct astrophysical engines could drive them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



Teams worldwide aim to see if this was a “cosmogenic” neutrino or if it sprang from an active celestial powerhouse. 



Eventually, a bigger fleet of detection units will allow more frequent captures of such signals, improving the odds of pinpointing their origin and clarifying the forces that shape our universe.



“We stand at a frontier where new data will sharpen our understanding of the cosmos,” said a KM3NeT representative. 



Each new detection offers a chance to spot patterns and compare them with signals from gamma-ray telescopes and other observatories.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08543-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Record-breaking "ghost particle" discovered in the deep ocean

Scientists recently shared news of a particle event that has...

This,Digital,Illustration,Showcases,A,Vibrant,Atomic,Model,With,Interconnected

Protons and neutrons stay together in the nucleus and make a stable atomic center, thanks to powerful interactions. For decades, the two-nucleon force was seen as the main player that both attracts these particles and keeps them from smashing too close together.



In a recent paper, researchers have shed light on an overlooked ingredient known as the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0370157320303409" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">three-nucleon force</a>.



The research was led by Professor Tokuro Fukui of <a href="https://www.kyushu-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kyushu University</a>'s Faculty of Arts and Science in Japan. The team investigated the ways in which adding a third player to the mix can change how stable an atom’s center is.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-nucleons-matter">Why nucleons matter</h2>



Nucleons are protons and neutrons. These particles form the central nucleus of each atom and influence whether an element is stable or liable to break down. 



Three forces are thought to operate within a nucleus - the strong nuclear force and the electrostatic force (together known as the two-nucleon force) - as well as the weaker three-nucleon force.



Many scientists trace our modern understanding of nuclear structure to the nuclear shell model, which won Maria Goeppert Mayer a Nobel Prize in 1963. 



In that model, nucleons fill specific energy levels, much like electrons do, though the underlying physics is more involved.



Nuclear forces also guide how atoms evolve in stars, where new elements can be created through fusion. This process, called nucleosynthesis, powers the production of heavier atoms that eventually spread through space.



Understanding how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cell-nuclei-play-unexpected-role-in-organ-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nuclear forces</a> shape this process can improve models of stellar evolution and element formation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-missing-force-in-atomic-nuclei">Missing force in atomic nuclei</h2>



“Scientists have formed a good understanding of the two-nucleon force and how it impacts nuclear stability,” said Fukui, who is the lead author of the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0370269324003976" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a>. 



Physicists have spent years fine-tuning models that show how the two-nucleon force functions. However, the three-nucleon force, which operates when three nucleons interact at the same time, has remained less well understood.



The recent study suggests this extra force is surprisingly significant in making the nucleus stronger. The researchers used advanced simulations to see how these interactions change energy levels inside the nucleus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spin-orbit-splitting-and-nuclear-stability">Spin-orbit splitting and nuclear stability</h2>



When nucleons line up their spins with their orbital movement, they settle into a lower-energy state. When their spins oppose their orbits, they climb to a higher energy state.



The differing energies form distinct shells. The study revealed that the three-nucleon force cranks up the energy gap between these shells in larger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/atomic-nucleus-made-of-quarks-and-gluons-reproduced-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nuclei</a>.



“This effect is so large that it has almost equal weighting to the impact of the two-nucleon force,” noted Fukui. In carbon-12, which carries 12 nucleons, this gap increased by a factor of 2.5.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-this-force-on-heavier-nuclei">Impact of this force on heavier nuclei</h2>



Heavier atoms have more nucleons, so these interactions become even more critical. If the nucleus has a stable arrangement - sometimes referred to as a magic number configuration - stacking on more neutrons becomes challenging.



When elements fuse inside stars, increasing stability in the nucleus makes the next step of capturing extra neutrons harder. As a result, certain elements might form more slowly or under special conditions.



This research could also impact nuclear physics applications, such as predicting isotopic stability, understanding radioactive decay, and refining <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nuclear-fission-what-exactly-happens-when-the-nucleus-of-an-atom-splits-in-two/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nuclear energy</a> models. 



These findings may help design better reactors or improve predictions about rare isotopes found in cosmic events.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-quantum-twists">Unexpected quantum twists</h2>



Another outcome relates to quantum entanglement, a phenomenon better known in electrons and photons. With the three-nucleon force in play, two of the three nucleons can exist in mixed spin states until observed.



This entanglement hints that nucleons might not be so simple to pin down. It raises fresh questions about how these spin states might be measured or harnessed. 



Similar effects in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-wobble-how-scientists-manipulated-the-nucleus-of-a-single-titanium-atom/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum</a> computing use entanglement for information processing, and researchers wonder if nuclear systems could contribute to future quantum technologies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



Scientists plan to extend these investigations to elements heavier than carbon. More nucleons likely strengthen the three-nucleon force even further, possibly making some atomic nuclei more stable than current models suggest.



These findings could improve predictions for stellar fusion pathways. By refining how we model nuclear interactions, researchers hope to predict which elements form under different cosmic scenarios.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0370269324003976?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physics Letters B</a>.



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Poorly understood force helps keep atomic nuclei stable

Protons and neutrons stay together in the nucleus and make...

Fog harvesting may provide a crucial water source for people living in some of the planet’s driest regions.&nbsp;



By <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-technology-can-purify-water-as-it-is-collected-from-fog/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">capturing moisture</a> from passing fog, this technique gathers droplets and channels them into storage, potentially easing shortages for those who have little or no connection to traditional water infrastructures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urban-water-solutions">Urban water solutions</h2>



The study was carried out by researchers at Chile’s <a href="https://www.umayor.cl/santiago" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Universidad Mayor</a>, who examined whether fog harvesting could meet the needs of residents in informal settlements in the Atacama Desert.&nbsp;



“This research represents a notable shift in the perception of fog water use - from a rural, rather small-scale solution to a practical water resource for cities,” said Virginia Carter Gamberini, an assistant professor at Universidad Mayor and first co-author of the paper.



“Our findings demonstrate that fog can serve as a complementary urban water supply in drylands where climate change exacerbates water shortages.”



Characterized by annual rainfall below one mm, Chile’s Atacama Desert has extremely limited water resources. Cities in the region often rely on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/groundwater-has-a-vital-role-in-ecosystem-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">groundwater</a> reserves that were last recharged between 17,000 and 10,000 years ago.&nbsp;



The goal of the research was to see if fog harvesting - a passive system that collects atmospheric moisture on mesh panels - could help alleviate the water needs of rapidly expanding urban areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-capturing-moisture-from-the-air">Capturing moisture from the air</h2>



 Fog collectors usually feature a mesh stretched between two posts. As fog rolls in, tiny droplets attach to the mesh, then trickle down into a collection gutter and onward to storage tanks. Because this setup requires no external power, it offers an appealing option in remote or infrastructure-poor environments.&nbsp;



The research team conducted a year-long study in Alto Hospicio, a municipality in the hyper-arid Atacama with a fast-growing population. Approximately 10,000 people in Alto Hospicio reside in informal settlements, and most depend on truck deliveries for their daily water.



“The collection and use of water, especially from non-conventional sources such as fog water, represents a key opportunity to improve the quality of life of inhabitants,” Carter said.&nbsp;



In the surrounding 100-square-kilometer area at higher altitudes, the researchers estimated a daily harvest potential of 0.2 to 5 liters of fog water per square meter, although fog density peaks in certain seasons. At times - such as August and September 2024 - fog yields jumped up to 10 liters per square meter each day.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-adoption-of-fog-harvesting">Broader adoption of fog harvesting </h2>



“By showcasing its potential in Alto Hospicio, one of Chile’s most stigmatized yet rapidly urbanizing cities, this study lays the groundwork for broader adoption in other water-scarce urban areas,” said researcher Nathalie Verbrugghe of <a href="https://www.ulb.be/en/ulb-homepage" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Université libre de Bruxelles</a>, also a first co-author of the article.&nbsp;



While the team emphasizes that fog harvesting alone will not solve chronic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tackling-the-worlds-climate-driven-water-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water shortages</a>, they believe it can become part of a larger strategy for sustainable urban water management.



The scientists envision multiple uses for harvested fog, including drinking water and irrigation for communal gardens. They estimate that installing 17,000 square meters of mesh - capable of generating an average of 2.5 liters of water per square meter per day - could meet the weekly water needs (about 300,000 liters) for urban slums.&nbsp;



For irrigating city green spaces, 110 square meters would cover an annual requirement of approximately 100,000 liters. Even small-scale food production is possible: according to the study, fog water could fuel soil-free agriculture, producing 15 to 20 kg of leafy vegetables a month.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prerequisites-for-fog-harvesting">Prerequisites for fog harvesting </h2>



Fog harvesting is dependent on specific geographical and climatic conditions. “Key prerequisites include fog density, suitable wind patterns, and well-oriented elevated landforms. Additionally, since fog is seasonal in many regions, this variability should be considered,” Verbrugghe said.&nbsp;



Storage tanks, piping infrastructure, and distribution systems are likewise necessary to deliver the collected water where it is needed.



For large settlements, scalability becomes a critical question. If successful, fog harvesting would require significant planning, funding, and collaboration among local communities, government authorities, and possibly private sector partners.&nbsp;



Yet the technique’s minimal energy demand and adaptability make it an appealing option, especially for regions forecast to face ever more severe water stresses under <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-now-the-driving-force-behind-droughts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fog-harvesting-and-resource-planning">Fog harvesting and resource planning </h2>



Encouraged by their findings, the researchers aim to integrate fog harvesting into broader, renewable water resource planning. 



“We hope to encourage policymakers to integrate this renewable source into national water strategies,” Carter concluded. “This could enhance urban resilience to climate change and rapid urbanization while improving access to clean water.”



In places like the Atacama Desert, where traditional water supplies are both ancient and limited, fog harvesting could serve as a practical complement to existing resources.&nbsp;



By combining multiple solutions - from groundwater to desalination to advanced conservation methods - communities may be better equipped to cope with the increasingly harsh realities of water scarcity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2025.1537058" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Environmental Science</a>.&nbsp;



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Fog harvesting could ease water shortages in the world’s driest places

Fog harvesting may provide a crucial water source for people...

While sexual reproduction is the predominant strategy among animals, some species have evolved the ability to reproduce asexually through parthenogenesis. In these species, females can produce offspring without mating.&nbsp;



However, even in predominantly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-asexual-ants-maintain-genetic-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asexual species</a>, rare males occasionally appear. What remains unclear is whether these males retain reproductive functions or if they are merely evolutionary remnants. 



Understanding this question could provide crucial insights into the evolution and persistence of reproductive strategies in nature.



A new study, published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ecy.4522" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology</a>, addresses this mystery by examining the rare males of Ramulus mikado, a species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stick-and-leaf-insects-have-all-evolved-the-same-basic-body-parts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stick insect</a> in Japan where parthenogenetic reproduction is the norm. 



The research was led by assistant professor Tomonari Nozaki from the <a href="https://www.nibb.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Institute for Basic Biology</a>, professor Kenji Suetsugu from <a href="https://www.kobe-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kobe University</a>, and associate professor Shingo Kaneko from <a href="https://english.adb.fukushima-u.ac.jp/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fukushima University</a>.



The results provide compelling evidence that these males, despite their mating attempts, have completely lost their reproductive function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-males-with-no-reproductive-function">Males with no reproductive function </h2>



The researchers closely studied the behavior and physiology of these rare males and found that, although they actively engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-birds-trick-their-way-into-mating-by-removing-testosterone-from-their-bodies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mating</a> with females, they did not contribute genetically to the next generation. 



Genetic analysis confirmed that no male-derived genes were passed on to the offspring, indicating that these males are effectively sterile.



The findings revealed that, although the males display typical stick insect morphology and mating behaviors, they do not produce functional sperm. This means that sexual reproduction cannot be restored in the species, even in the presence of males.&nbsp;



Interestingly, female reproductive organs associated with sexual reproduction showed signs of degeneration, further suggesting that the species has been evolving without sexual reproduction for a long time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-rare-males-to-study">Finding rare males to study</h2>



One of the major hurdles in conducting this study was obtaining specimens of these rare males.



“In fact, we have never personally encountered a male R. mikado in the wild, despite extensive field collections of stick insects across Japan,” Suetsugu said. “To overcome this, our research team collaborated with museums and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/citizen-scientists-gain-a-stronger-connection-with-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">citizen science</a> groups, successfully collecting seven males over four years.”



The collected males were then observed in controlled conditions, where their mating behavior was recorded. Additionally, researchers conducted detailed morphological and histological analyses to examine their reproductive anatomy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-loss-of-reproductive-traits-in-males">Loss of reproductive traits in males</h2>



The study raises important questions about the long-term evolutionary trajectory of asexual species.



“Surprisingly, the rare males of this stick insect have completely lost their reproductive function,” Kaneko remarked.



“Unlike female sexual traits, the loss of male sexual traits is generally thought to take an extremely long time. In many other species, even rare males often retain their reproductive capabilities.”&nbsp;



“Our findings suggest that R. mikado has relied solely on parthenogenesis for such an extended period that even neutral mutations have accumulated, leading to the complete loss of male reproductive traits.”



This suggests that once a species becomes fully dependent on parthenogenesis, the re-emergence of sexual reproduction may become impossible. Over time, genetic changes accumulate that further reinforce the asexual mode of reproduction, making the reversal to sexual reproduction unlikely.



“This study demonstrates that parthenogenesis in R. mikado has become irreversible. Although asexual reproduction is often considered evolutionarily short-lived due to the lack of genetic recombination, our previous research estimated that this species has persisted for hundreds of thousands of years," said Nozaki.



"How has R. mikado managed to survive for such a long time? This remains an intriguing mystery for future research."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-viability-of-asexual-reproduction">Long-term viability of asexual reproduction</h2>



Biologists have long debated the evolutionary fate of asexual organisms. Many studies suggest that asexual reproduction, while advantageous in the short term, can be an evolutionary dead end due to the absence of genetic recombination.&nbsp;



Without recombination, harmful mutations can accumulate, and the population may struggle to adapt to environmental changes or resist emerging pathogens.



Yet, the persistence of R. mikado challenges this assumption. If this stick insect species has survived for hundreds of thousands of years without sexual reproduction, it raises the question of what mechanisms allow it to maintain<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterflys-rapid-expansion-led-to-lower-genetic-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> genetic diversity</a> and adaptability. 



One possibility is rare genetic mutations that provide variation even in the absence of recombination. Another explanation could be environmental stability, where selective pressures have remained relatively constant, reducing the need for genetic diversity.&nbsp;



There is also the potential for cryptic mechanisms of genetic exchange, such as occasional hybridization events with related species - though no evidence of this has been found in R. mikado.



These possibilities open new avenues for research into the sustainability of asexual reproduction in nature.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



The study on R. mikado is part of a broader effort to understand how parthenogenetic species evolve and persist. Future research may focus on identifying the genetic changes responsible for male sterility and exploring whether other parthenogenetic stick insect species have undergone similar irreversible transitions.



Additionally, scientists are interested in investigating how R. mikado avoids the pitfalls associated with asexual reproduction, such as genetic stagnation and vulnerability to environmental shifts. Comparative studies with other stick insect species, both sexual and asexual, could provide valuable insights into these evolutionary dynamics.



By continuing to study rare cases like R. mikado, researchers hope to unravel the complexities of reproductive evolution and better understand the forces shaping <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> in nature.



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Some male insects have lost the ability to reproduce but still have sex

While sexual reproduction is the predominant strategy among animals, some...

The idea of consuming human flesh is enough to turn the stomach. It feels unnatural, grotesque, and completely at odds with the norms of modern society. Yet, history tells a different story. For some ancient cultures, cannibalism was not only practiced but carried deep meaning.



Whether as an act of survival, a form of warfare, or a ritual, the consumption of human flesh has left its mark on history.



A recent study has revealed shocking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ant-queens-turn-to-cannibalism-recycle-bodies-for-colony-disease-control/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence</a> of cannibalism among the Magdalenians, a prehistoric European culture that thrived between 17,000 and 12,000 years ago. 



Researchers have discovered that these ancient people not only consumed their enemies after battle but may have also eaten their own dead. 



The findings, based on remains found in Maszycka Cave, challenge our understanding of early human societies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unearthing-the-evidence-of-ancient-cannibalism">Unearthing the evidence of ancient cannibalism</h2>



Maszycka Cave, located about 12 miles from Krakow, Poland, has long been a significant archaeological site. More than a century ago, researchers uncovered human bones there, alongside stone tools and animal remains.



These findings suggested that the site was once home to a late Ice Age society. Recent excavations, however, have revealed something far more disturbing.



Researchers from Spain and Poland analyzed 63 human bone fragments from the cave, and uncovered clear signs of cannibalism. 



Cut marks, fractures, and evidence of flesh removal suggest that these individuals were not merely buried but processed for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannibalism-cellular-level-common-across-various-life-forms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">consumption</a>.



The study, published in Scientific Reports, provides undeniable evidence that the Magdalenians engaged in human consumption.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-process-of-consumption">Process of consumption</h2>



One of the most striking discoveries was the evidence of skull manipulation. 



Skulls from Maszycka Cave bore marks from scalping, flesh removal, and intentional fracturing. These modifications suggest that Magdalenians actively sought to access the brain, a nutrient-rich part of the body.



"The butchering process took place shortly after death, with no period reserved for the bodies to decompose or dry," the researchers stated.



Long bones, such as femurs and humeri, showed clear signs of being broken open, likely to extract marrow. This method closely resembles how ancient people processed animal bones for nutrients. 



Researchers noted that many of the cut marks on human remains were nearly identical to those found on animal bones, further supporting the idea that the bodies were treated as a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosasaurs-had-fierce-survival-strategies-including-cannibalism/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food source</a>.



"The position and frequency of the cut marks, as well as the targeted smashing of bones, leave no doubt that their intention was to extract nutritious components from the dead," explained first author Francesc Marginedas from the Catalan Institute of Human Paleoecology and Social Evolution (<a href="https://www.iphes.cat/institute" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IPHES</a>).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enemies-or-ritual-victims">Enemies or ritual victims?</h2>



The study raises important questions about why the Magdalenians engaged in cannibalism. 



Some experts believe it was a result of warfare, with victorious warriors consuming their fallen enemies as an act of dominance. Others suggest it may have had ritualistic significance.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/cannibalism_ancient-europeans_bite-marks-bones_credit-IPHES_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/cannibalism_ancient-europeans_bite-marks-bones_credit-IPHES_1s.webp" alt="Human induced modifications on cranial and postcranial remains. Cut marks (blue and yellow) due to scalping (e, u) and defleshing of the skull (c, d, f, i, j, t), percussion damage (red) on skull fragments (a, b). Defleshing marks on a mandible (g, h), on a clavicle (l, n), on a radius (o), on a femur (p, q) and on a fibula (s). Disarticulation marks on a humerus (k, r) and peeling (green) on a clavicle (m). The specimen ID is located next to the scale at the bottom of the images. Credit: IPHES" class="wp-image-1960442"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Human induced modifications on cranial and postcranial remains. Cut marks (blue and yellow) due to scalping (e, u) and defleshing of the skull (c, d, f, i, j, t), percussion damage (red) on skull fragments (a, b). Defleshing marks on a mandible (g, h), on a clavicle (l, n), on a radius (o), on a femur (p, q) and on a fibula (s). Disarticulation marks on a humerus (k, r) and peeling (green) on a clavicle (m). The specimen ID is located next to the scale at the bottom of the images. Credit: IPHES</figcaption></figure>



The practice was not limited to enemies. A 2023 study suggested that Magdalenians also consumed their deceased loved ones, possibly as a method of body disposal. 



This further complicates the debate over whether their cannibalistic acts were driven by necessity or belief.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-culture-of-art-and-violence">A culture of art and violence</h2>



Despite these gruesome discoveries, the Magdalenian culture was known for its artistic achievements. 



They left behind intricate cave paintings, carved tools, and engraved bones. Their artwork, found in locations such as the famous Lascaux caves in France, suggests a society that valued creativity and expression.



"The wide range of artistic evidence points to favorable living conditions during this period. It therefore seems unlikely that cannibalism was practiced out of necessity," said Professor Thomas Terberger from the <a href="https://www.uni-goettingen.de/en/1.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Göttingen</a>.



This presents an interesting paradox. How could a culture so advanced in artistic expression also engage in cannibalism? One possibility is that cannibalism was not about survival but about power, belief, or warfare. 



It may have been a way to mark territory, strike fear into enemies, or maintain social order within their groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cannibalism-linked-to-population-pressure">Cannibalism linked to population pressure</h2>



Researchers believe that growing population pressure during the late Ice Age may have played a role in the rise of violent cannibalism. 



As resources became scarce, competition between groups intensified. The increase in territorial conflicts could have led to extreme acts of violence, including consuming enemies as part of warfare.



"It is possible that this was an example of violent cannibalism. After the last Ice Age, there was population growth, and that may have led to conflicts over resources and territories," said Marginedas.



At Maszycka Cave, human remains were found mixed with settlement debris, suggesting that the dead were not treated with respect. 



This further supports the idea that these individuals were not honored in death but were instead treated as food or trophies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cannibalism-across-human-history">Cannibalism across human history</h2>



The Magdalenians were not the first to engage in cannibalism, nor were they the last. 



Evidence of human consumption dates back 1.45 million years to Kenya, where a shin bone fossil bore cut marks consistent with butchery. 



Throughout <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stellar-cannibalism-scientists-find-the-remnants-of-devoured-stars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">history</a>, various cultures have engaged in cannibalism for different reasons, whether due to starvation, warfare, or religious rituals.



"Cannibalism is a behavior that has been documented at various times in human evolution," said co-author Dr. Palmira Saladié.



"In prehistoric contexts, it could respond both to survival needs and to ritual practices or even to dynamics of intergroup violence."



The Magdalenians may have practiced it more frequently than other groups, but it was by no means unique to them. 



Archaeologists have uncovered similar evidence among Neanderthals, early Homo sapiens, and even societies from more recent historical periods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-the-magdalenian-legacy">Rethinking the Magdalenian legacy</h2>



This discovery forces us to rethink how we view the Magdalenian people. They were not just artists and hunters but also warriors and possibly ritualistic cannibals. Their society was complex, shaped by both creativity and brutality.



Cannibalism during this period was not necessarily widespread, but it was also not unheard of. It was likely a response to specific circumstances, whether conflict, population pressure, or deeply held beliefs. 



The remains at Maszycka Cave offer a rare glimpse into this brutal aspect of their culture, challenging our assumptions about early human societies.



While we may never fully understand the motivations behind Magdalenian cannibalism, this research brings us closer to uncovering the realities of life in prehistoric Europe. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-86093-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Cannibalism: Ancient Europeans ate both enemies and loved ones

The idea of consuming human flesh is enough to turn...

Mars, often seen as a dry and dusty world, holds surprising beauty in its skies. While Earth’s clouds are made of water vapor, Martian clouds contain something quite different - frozen carbon dioxide, also known as dry ice.



These clouds appear in stunning shades of red and green, creating an otherworldly spectacle that continues to intrigue scientists.



Recently, NASA’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/msl-curiosity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Curiosity rover</a> captured breathtaking images of these drifting clouds. Taken over 16 minutes on 17 January 2025, these images reveal a fascinating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/martian-phenomenon-causes-spectacular-glowing-clouds-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmospheric phenomenon</a>.



Known as noctilucent, or “night shining” clouds, these spectacular structures glow in the fading light of the setting sun. For this reason, they are also referred to as twilight clouds.



Sometimes, they even display a rainbow-like effect known as iridescence. The more scientists observe these clouds, the more they learn about Mars's atmosphere and its ever-changing weather patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-of-clouds-on-mars">Formation of clouds on Mars</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/twenty-years-mars-clouds-catalogued-in-stunning-new-online-photo-atlas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian</a> clouds form under extreme conditions. They exist as either water ice clouds or carbon dioxide ice clouds. 



Water-ice clouds tend to form at lower altitudes, while frozen carbon dioxide clouds appear much higher up, where temperatures are even colder. 



These dry ice clouds are the only ones on Mars known to create iridescence, when sunlight scatters through the tiny particles and creates a <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/mars-clouds_rainbow-colors_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shimmering display of colors</a>.



Curiosity’s latest images show these twilight clouds of dry ice floating at altitudes between 37 and 50 miles (60 to 80 kilometers) above the Martian surface.



As they drift, some plumes fall as low as 31 miles (50 kilometers) before evaporating due to rising temperatures. 



This movement offers valuable clues about the Martian atmosphere and how it behaves at different temperatures.



In contrast, water-ice clouds travel in the opposite direction. these clouds hover around 31 miles (50 kilometers) above the rover, forming and dissipating as the atmosphere shifts. 



The existence of two types of clouds moving in different directions adds another layer of complexity to the Martian climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovering-mars-s-twilight-clouds">Discovering Mars's twilight clouds</h2>



Twilight clouds on Mars are not a new discovery. NASA’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/mars-pathfinder/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pathfinder mission</a> first spotted them in 1997. However, Curiosity did not observe them until 2019. 



When it finally captured its first images of iridescence, scientists realized they had stumbled upon something remarkable.



This marks the fourth Martian year in which Curiosity has recorded twilight clouds. The phenomenon occurs at the start of fall in the planet’s southern hemisphere. 



These high-altitude clouds of frozen carbon dioxide glow as the sun dips below the horizon, creating a breathtaking visual effect.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/mars_colorful-clouds_ice_atmosphere_NASA_GRL_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/mars_colorful-clouds_ice_atmosphere_NASA_GRL_1s.webp" alt="Iridescent clouds are shown in cylindrical projection. Mosaics are shown from sols (a) 3,047, (b) 3,048, (c) 3,050, (d) 2,425, and (e) 3,049. The axes are at azimuth 270°, elevation 15°, with tick marks every 5° (azimuth) and 1° (elevation). Scattering-angle contours are at 5° intervals with a yellow 30° contour. The image in (d) is shown at twice the resolution of the others. Credit: NASA/GRL" class="wp-image-1960439"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Iridescent clouds are shown in cylindrical projection. Mosaics are shown from sols (a) 3,047, (b) 3,048, (c) 3,050, (d) 2,425, and (e) 3,049. The axes are at azimuth 270°, elevation 15°, with tick marks every 5° (azimuth) and 1° (elevation). Scattering-angle contours are at 5° intervals with a yellow 30° contour. The image in (d) is shown at twice the resolution of the others. Credit: NASA/GRL</figcaption></figure>



Mark Lemmon, an atmospheric scientist with the <a href="https://www.spacescience.org/index.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Space Science Institute</a>, has studied these clouds extensively. 



“I’ll always remember the first time I saw those iridescent clouds and was sure at first it was some color artifact,” he said. “Now it’s become so predictable that we can plan our shots in advance; the clouds show up at exactly the same time of year.”



Scientists use these observations to understand how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dust-storms-can-engulf-the-entire-planet-of-mars-but-how/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian</a> clouds form. Studying the size and growth rate of cloud particles helps researchers gain deeper insight into the planet’s atmospheric behavior. Each image captured by Curiosity adds to our appreciation of this phenomenon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mystery-of-carbon-dioxide-clouds">Mystery of carbon dioxide clouds</h2>



Despite years of observations, one question remains unanswered - why do carbon dioxide twilight clouds appear only in certain regions of the Martian atmosphere?



Curiosity, which explores Gale Crater near the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-white-christmas-australe-scopuli-region-changing-polar-landscape/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian</a> equator, has frequently captured them. Pathfinder, which landed in Ares Vallis, also detected them. 



However, NASA’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/mars-2020-perseverance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Perseverance rover</a>, located in Jezero Crater, has yet to record any since its landing in 2021.



Scientists believe that some areas of Mars may be more suitable than others for the formation of these clouds. One possible explanation involves gravity waves, which can cool the atmosphere enough for carbon dioxide to freeze into ice.



However, this process is not fully understood.



“Carbon dioxide was not expected to be condensing into ice here, so something is cooling it to the point that it could happen. But Martian gravity waves are not fully understood and we’re not entirely sure what is causing twilight clouds to form in one place but not another,” Lemmon shared.



This atmospheric mystery continues to challenge scientists. By studying how these clouds appear and change over time, researchers hope to unlock new insights into Martian weather and climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-perspective-from-curiosity-s-mastcam">Unique perspective from Curiosity’s Mastcam</h2>



The latest images of twilight clouds were taken using one of Curiosity’s Mastcam cameras. 



However, these images have a distinct appearance. Instead of a full-frame view, the clouds appear within a partially open circle. This is because the filter wheel on the left 34 mm Mastcam has become stuck; this limits its field of view.



Despite this issue, the camera remains functional. The rover’s right 100 mm Mastcam provides higher-resolution, color images that capture a more detailed picture of the Martian skies. These observations continue to help scientists track changes in the atmosphere.



Curiosity recently completed an exploration of the Gediz Vallis channel, an area shaped by ancient water activity. Now, the rover is moving to a new region that is filled with fascinating geological features.



Among them is boxwork, a structure formed by groundwater. These formations look like giant spiderwebs from space.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-investigating-mars-s-ancient-past">Investigating Mars’s ancient past</h2>



Curiosity’s journey is not just about studying clouds - it also seeks clues about Mars’s past. Recently, the rover visited an impact crater called “Rustic Canyon.”



This small crater, measuring 67 feet (20 meters) in diameter, has lost much of its rim due to erosion. Its shallow depth suggests that it formed millions of years ago.



Scientists study impact craters because they can reveal hidden materials from beneath the surface. When a meteor strikes Mars, it can expose rock layers that have been buried for eons. 



These ancient materials may contain preserved organic molecules that offer insights into the planet’s history.



Since Mars’s surface is constantly exposed to radiation, organic molecules tend to degrade over time. However, deeply buried materials have a better chance of remaining intact.



By analyzing samples from craters, researchers hope to understand whether <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasas-curiosity-rover-records-a-martian-day-from-dawn-to-dusk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a> once had conditions suitable for microbial life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-future-holds">What the future holds</h2>



Curiosity’s observations of Martian clouds provide a deeper understanding of the planet’s climate and atmosphere. 



Each new image offers valuable information about cloud formation, atmospheric cooling, and seasonal weather changes.



The ongoing mystery of carbon dioxide twilight clouds remains unsolved, but with continued research, scientists may one day uncover the factors that cause them to form in some areas but not others.



As Curiosity moves forward in its mission, it will continue exploring new terrains and capturing more stunning views of the Martian sky. 



Each discovery brings humanity one step closer to understanding the Red Planet and its potential for hosting past or present life.



The full study can be read in the <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2024GL111183" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a>.



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Martian skies have spectacular, glowing clouds at sunset

Mars, often seen as a dry and dusty world, holds...

Evolution has shaped life on Earth for billions of years. Organisms adapt to their surroundings, developing traits that help them survive. From bacteria resisting antibiotics to viruses mutating to evade vaccines, evolution is always at work. 



But what if evolution itself could change over time?



A new study from the University of Michigan (U-M) explores this very idea. The research suggests that evolution does not just happen - it improves itself. 



The ability to evolve, known as "evolvability," might be something that organisms can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-gene-families-pangenome-influence-called-revolutionary/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enhance over generations</a>.



Luis Zaman, an evolutionary biologist at <a href="https://umich.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U-M</a> and the study’s lead author, finds this concept fascinating. 



"Life is really, really good at solving problems. If you look around, there's so much diversity in life, and that all these things come from a common ancestor seems really surprising to me," said Zaman. 



"Why is evolution so seemingly creative? It seems like maybe that ability is something that evolved itself."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-and-the-potential-to-adapt">Evolution and the potential to adapt</h2>



Most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/timeline-of-lifes-evolution-extended-by-nearly-1-5-billion-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary theories</a> focus on how mutations increase an organism’s fitness in its environment. A beneficial mutation gives an organism a survival advantage, helping it pass those traits to future generations. 



However, evolvability is different. It does not focus on immediate fitness. Instead, it increases an organism’s potential to adapt to new challenges in the future.



"This forward-looking feature of evolvability makes it contentious. We think it's important. We know it happens. Why it happens and when it happens is something we're less clear about," Zaman explained.



"We were trying to figure out: Can we see the evolution of evolvability in a more realistic computational model?"



To answer this question, the researchers designed an experiment to simulate evolution. They wanted to explore whether populations could develop an improved ability to evolve when faced with changing environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-a-model-to-test-evolution">Building a model to test evolution</h2>



To test their hypothesis, the researchers built a computational model using logic functions. They compared the model to a population that could only consume certain types of berries. 



In one environment, red berries were beneficial, while blue berries were toxic. In another, the roles reversed. A population could only thrive in one of these two conditions at a time.



They ran two different scenarios. In one, the environment remained stable, meaning a population only had to adapt once. 



In another, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-life-and-environment-co-evolved-over-500-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environment changed regularly</a>, forcing the population to shift between eating red and blue berries.



The goal was to observe how populations adapted under these different conditions and whether their ability to evolve improved over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-change-boosts-evolvability">Environmental change boosts evolvability</h2>



The results revealed something remarkable. Populations exposed to shifting environments showed a significant increase in evolvability. 



Instead of becoming specialists in one condition, they developed traits that allowed them to survive in both.



Mutations increased a thousandfold in populations that had to switch between eating red and blue berries. 



This meant that organisms were not just adapting to their current surroundings - they were also developing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolution-is-not-as-random-as-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ability to adapt</a> to future changes more efficiently.



The key takeaway was that exposure to varying conditions could push populations to evolve in a way that made them better at evolving itself. 



This supports the idea that evolvability is not just a byproduct of evolution but a trait that natural selection can shape over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-mutational-neighborhoods">Role of mutational neighborhoods</h2>



The researchers used a computational system called Avida to simulate evolutionary processes. This system allowed them to track how populations changed in response to fluctuating environments.



"You can think of the evolved computer programs as pathways of multiple genes made up of computer codes," said Zaman. "Each time the environment fluctuates, this pathway needs to be reconfigured to eat the new berries."



Mutational neighborhoods played a crucial role in this process. These neighborhoods represent genetic variations that allow populations to shift their survival strategies. 



Instead of relying on entirely new mutations, organisms could modify existing genetic pathways to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolution-is-both-predictable-and-random/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adapt</a> more quickly.



By studying these genetic shifts, the researchers gained deeper insights into how organisms adjust to unpredictable environments. Rather than starting from scratch each time, populations could "learn" how to evolve more efficiently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-time-on-evolvability">Impact of time on evolvability</h2>



The researchers also investigated how the timing of environmental changes influenced evolvability. 



They tested three different scenarios: one where environments changed every generation, one where they changed every ten generations, and another where they changed every hundred generations.



The results showed that when environments changed too quickly, populations struggled to develop evolvability. 



However, even long cycle periods - hundreds of generations - could lead to significant improvements in an organism’s ability to adapt.



"Once a population has achieved this evolvability, it seems like it didn't get erased by future evolution," Zaman said.



This suggests that once evolution improves its ability to evolve, that trait does not disappear. Instead, it becomes a permanent feature, shaping how future generations adapt to their surroundings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-way-of-thinking-about-evolution">New way of thinking about evolution</h2>



This study challenges the traditional view of evolution as a purely reactive process. Instead, it suggests that evolution can refine itself over time, becoming more efficient in adapting to changing environments.



If evolvability can evolve, it raises new questions about how life has <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-are-walking-ecosystems-and-microbes-rule-their-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">persisted and diversified</a> over billions of years. 



Organisms that develop a greater capacity for adaptation may have a long-term advantage over those that rely solely on immediate survival traits.



By demonstrating that evolution itself can evolve, this research opens new possibilities for understanding the complexity of life. 



It suggests that the ability to change and improve is not just a random occurrence but a fundamental aspect of how life progresses.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2413930121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Evolution itself is found to be evolving as life constantly learns to adapt

Evolution has shaped life on Earth for billions of years....

Muscle health plays a vital role in overall well-being, affecting strength, mobility, and longevity. While exercise and protein intake have long been the cornerstones of muscle maintenance, new research suggests that diet alone may have a powerful influence. 



A recent study from Western New England University (WNE) has introduced an unexpected player in muscle health - grapes.



This study reveals that consuming grapes daily could alter muscle gene expression, potentially enhancing strength and resilience. These findings offer a new perspective on how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/resveratrol-may-boost-female-fertility-naturally/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural foods</a> impact the body at a genetic level.



With millions of people struggling with age-related muscle loss, the potential benefits of grapes in maintaining muscle function are both exciting and significant.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exceeding-nutritional-benefits">Exceeding nutritional benefits</h2>



Every year, people around the world consume approximately 30 million tons of grapes, making them one of the most widely eaten fruits. 



While they are valued for their rich nutritional content, their health benefits extend well beyond basic nutrition. 



Scientific research has shown that grapes positively impact various aspects of health, including cardiovascular function, kidney health, and skin vitality.



Additionally, grapes contain compounds that support eye health by protecting against oxidative stress, which can contribute to vision decline. 



Their role in gastrointestinal health is also noteworthy, as grapes promote digestion and contribute to a balanced gut microbiome.



With their wide-ranging <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/muscles-defy-aging-with-remarkable-resilience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health advantages</a>, grapes have become more than just a tasty fruit - they are a natural source of essential compounds that support overall well-being.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-grapes-change-muscle-genes">Grapes change muscle genes</h2>



With this study, researchers have shed light on the dynamic influence daily grape consumption exerts on muscle gene expression. 



The effects are significantly more profound in females, which intriguingly brings male and female muscle characteristics closer to each other at a metabolic level.



Genes tied to lean muscle mass showed an upward trend, while those related to muscle degeneration displayed a decline, pointing towards improved muscle function. 



These revelations open up potential pathways for tackling age-related <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-muscles-may-soon-be-able-to-regenerate-like-other-muscles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">muscle</a> loss, a challenge faced by 10-16% of elderly individuals.



Dr. John Pezzuto, senior investigator of the study, is the Dean of Pharmacy and Health Sciences at <a href="https://wne.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Western New England University</a>.



"This study provides compelling evidence that grapes have the potential to enhance muscle health at the genetic level," noted Dr. Pezzuto.



"Given their safety profile and widespread availability, it will be exciting to explore how quickly these changes can be observed in human trials."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-do-grapes-affect-muscles">How do grapes affect muscles?</h2>



The fascinating field of nutrigenomics discusses the influence of diet on gene expression and the corresponding impact of genetic variation on dietary responses. 



The researchers examined how daily intake of two servings of grapes impacted genetic expression patterns within muscle. 



Intriguingly, the male and female muscles that usually exhibit significant differences converged into a unified phenotype under the grape-inclusive diet.



The DNA of a single species, including humans, doesn’t vary notably from one individual to another. However, the primary factor that sets us apart is the expression of DNA, otherwise known as the phenotype. 



The ingestion of grapes brought about changes in the phenotypic gene expression of male and female muscle, predominantly in females, resulting in an aligned metabolic parameter between the two.



In another fascinating observation, specific genes linked with favorable muscle health - such as lean muscle mass - were enhanced. At the same time, genes associated with deteriorating muscle health were reduced.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



The researchers plan to conduct further studies to understand the specific biological processes responsible for these genetic changes in muscle function. 



They also aim to determine how quickly these changes occur after regular grape consumption.



By identifying the exact mechanisms behind this phenomenon, scientists can better assess how grapes contribute to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-fuels-neuron-growth-through-muscle-signals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">muscle health</a> and whether their effects vary among different individuals.



As nutrigenomics advances, this study represents a significant step toward developing new dietary strategies for maintaining muscle strength and preventing age-related decline. 



If future research confirms these findings, incorporating grapes into daily nutrition could become a practical and accessible way to support muscle health across all age groups. 



This study opens the door for a deeper exploration of how natural foods can positively influence the body at the genetic level.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2304-8158/14/4/695" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Foods</a>.



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Eating grapes every day can transform your body in a unique way

Muscle health plays a vital role in overall well-being, affecting...

Strange as it sounds, some scientists think the earliest life forms on Earth may have painted our planet in shades of purple rather than the green we see today. 



This idea, known as the Purple Earth hypothesis, suggests that single-celled organisms depended on a less complex molecule than chlorophyll to harness sunlight.



NASA-supported work points to retinal as that pivotal molecule, which lent these microbes a vivid violet color. 



The concept has been investigated by astrobiologist Dr. Edward Schwieterman of the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Riverside</a>, and professor Shiladitya DasSarma of the <a href="https://umd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maryland</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-chlorophyll-the-basics">Understanding chlorophyll - the basics</h2>



Chlorophyll is the green pigment that makes plants, algae, and some bacteria look so vibrant. More importantly, it’s the powerhouse behind <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/revealing-the-secrets-of-photosynthesis-through-pep/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a> - the process that lets plants turn sunlight into energy.



Without <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gardening-hack-called-green-gold-chlorophyll-works-like-magic-for-houseplants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chlorophyll</a>, life as we know it wouldn’t exist because it’s the first step in producing the oxygen we breathe and the food we eat.



This molecule absorbs light, mostly from the blue and red spectrum, while reflecting green, which is why leaves look green. 



It's packed into tiny structures inside plant cells called chloroplasts, where the magic of photosynthesis happens.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-color-from-a-different-molecule">Early color from a different molecule</h2>



While modern plants rely on chlorophyll, it may not have been <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-building-blocks-of-life-zinc-arrived-on-early-earth-planetesimals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>’s first choice for photosynthesis. Retinal is simpler and was likely present on Earth when atmospheric oxygen was scarce.



During that period, known for low oxygen and a hazy sky, scientists believe sunlight was still abundant enough to power these purple microbes. This scenario points to a very different Earth from the lush, leafy version we see now.



Many of these primeval organisms fell under the archaea umbrella, a group that thrives in environments hostile to most other life. 



One notable example is often called halobacterium, a bright purple microbe that survives in salty spots like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-salt-lake-is-rapidly-shrinking-and-experts-have-identified-the-causes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Great Salt Lake</a>.



Despite its name, halobacterium is not a bacterium but an archaeon that uses photosynthesis in a less common way. It absorbs green wavelengths through retinal and reflects red and blue, which produces its striking purple appearance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-purple-earth-turned-green-nbsp">How purple Earth turned green&nbsp;</h2>



Over time, other organisms evolved the more efficient pigment, chlorophyll, enabling them to harvest sunlight at stronger wavelengths.



This shift eventually overshadowed the retinal-based approach and helped fuel the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/it-took-200-million-years-for-earth-to-get-its-oxygen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Great Oxygenation Event</a>, when oxygen levels in our atmosphere rose dramatically.



Retinal-based life did not disappear, but it was no longer the dominant force shaping the planet’s surface color. Chlorophyll-using organisms thrived, turning <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-planets-formed-in-the-harsh-early-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>’s general look from purple to green.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-searching-for-colorful-life">Searching for colorful life</h2>



Astrobiologists suspect exoplanets might host creatures that still rely on retinal. 



“If the Purple Earth hypothesis was correct and there was a dominance of purple organisms in the early Earth, then we might be able to find another planet that’s at an earlier stage of evolution,” said DasSarma.



Color signals from these far-off worlds could reveal whether simple purple life is out there. Early retinal-based photosynthesis might offer a stepping stone before more advanced pigments evolve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-purple-pockets-on-modern-earth">Purple pockets on modern Earth</h2>



Although Earth is now mostly green, places like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/salt-is-building-up-in-the-bottom-of-the-dead-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dead Sea</a> still shine with violet hues thanks to halobacterium. These hardy microbes thrive in extreme salt concentrations that deter many other forms of life.



By studying these vibrant spots, researchers gain insights into how purple life could survive on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/super-earth-discovered-in-the-habitable-zone-of-its-star/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extraterrestrial terrains</a> with similarly tough conditions. 



Observing them also helps scientists refine the signals they might seek on exoplanets.



Today’s vegetation has a recognizable red edge, where leaves strongly absorb red light but reflect a specific infrared wavelength. 



Retinal, on the other hand, would likely create a different type of spectral fingerprint that peaks in the green region.



Scientists are calling for <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-78071-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">instruments</a> that can track a wider range of wavelengths to detect such signatures. This approach broadens our view of what life might look like on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-other-planets-collected-first-water-from-unexpected-source-planetesimals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planets</a> circling distant stars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-future-holds">What the future holds</h2>



Advances in telescope technology will soon allow more detailed observations of exoplanet atmospheres and surfaces. 



Analysts hope to find color patterns that reflect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-laid-the-foundation-for-early-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biological processes</a>, whether they resemble chlorophyll or something entirely different. 



A confirmed Purple Earth <a href="https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20170011333" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phase</a> would be a key reminder that life can take unexpected paths. 



“This is another reference point in a library of potential biosignatures that we can search for elsewhere,” said Schwieterman. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-earth-s-purple-past-matters">Why Earth’s purple past matters</h2>



The Purple Earth hypothesis remains unproven, yet it encourages new ways of thinking about our planet’s past and the search for life beyond. 



If <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/looking-to-earths-ancient-climate-to-predict-our-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>’s earliest successful photosynthesizers truly glowed purple, then that color might reappear wherever organisms adopt retinal as their main solar sponge.



This imaginative view highlights life’s capacity to adapt in surprising ways. It also urges us to look for signals we might otherwise miss if we focus only on what we see today.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1705.05791" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astrobiolo</a><a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1705.05791" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gy</a>.



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"Purple Earth" hypothesis is gaining scientific momentum

Strange as it sounds, some scientists think the earliest life...

A rare, nearly complete skull unearthed in the Egyptian desert has led scientists to the identification of a new species of Hyaenodonta - an extinct group of powerful carnivorous mammals that once ruled as apex predators.&nbsp;



The research describes a leopard-sized creature nicknamed Bastetodon after an ancient Egyptian goddess. 



Boasting a robust bite and sharp, slicing teeth, this newly discovered predator would have preyed on primates, early elephants, and other mammals in a forested region that is now desert.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bastetodon-predator-ruled-ancient-egypt">Bastetodon predator ruled ancient Egypt</h2>



The fossil was found by a team informally known as the Sallam Lab during an expedition to the Fayum Depression - a famous site for Paleogene fossils in northern Egypt.&nbsp;



Study lead author Shorouq Al-Ashqar is a paleontologist at <a href="https://www.mans.edu.eg/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mansoura University</a> and the <a href="https://www.aucegypt.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American University</a> in Cairoù.



“For days, the team meticulously excavated layers of rock dating back around 30 million years,” said Al-Ashqar. Just as we were about to conclude our work, a team member spotted something remarkable - a set of large teeth sticking out of the ground."



His excited shout brought the team together, marking the beginning of an extraordinary discovery: a nearly complete skull of an ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snow-leopards-tracing-the-evolution-of-an-apex-predator/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">apex carnivore</a>, a dream for any vertebrate paleontologist.



Using the preserved skull, the researchers determined that this apex predator was a member of Hyaenodonta, a group that thrived in African ecosystems well before the appearance of modern cats, dogs, or hyenas.&nbsp;



Despite the name, hyaenodonts were not closely related to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spotted-hyena-returns-to-egypt-after-5000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hyenas</a> but formed their own evolutionary lineage of formidable hunters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ruler-of-a-prehistoric-food-chain">Ruler of a prehistoric food chain</h2>



Bastetodon draws its name from Bastet, the cat-headed goddess of protection in ancient Egyptian mythology, underscoring both the fossil’s feline-like snout and its Egyptian origin.&nbsp;



The “-odon” suffix, meaning “tooth,” emphasizes this animal’s defining trait: powerful jaws with slicing teeth designed for capturing and cutting through flesh.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Bastetodon-syrtos_ancient-Egyptian-predator_timeline_credit-Ahmad-Morsi_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Bastetodon-syrtos_ancient-Egyptian-predator_timeline_credit-Ahmad-Morsi_1s.webp" alt="Locality map, stratigraphic column, and reconstruction of Bastetodon syrtos. A, map of Egypt showing the location of the Fayum Depression (rectangle); B, map of the Jebel Qatrani area displaying the distribution of vertebrate fossil quarries and their ages; C, stratigraphic column of the Jebel Qatrani area; D, reconstruction of the head and neck region of the new genus. Credit: Ahmed Morsi" class="wp-image-1960384"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Locality map, stratigraphic column, and reconstruction of Bastetodon syrtos. A, map of Egypt showing the location of the Fayum Depression (rectangle); B, map of the Jebel Qatrani area displaying the distribution of vertebrate fossil quarries and their ages; C, stratigraphic column of the Jebel Qatrani area; D, reconstruction of the head and neck region of the new genus. Credit: Ahmed Morsi</figcaption></figure>



Like the goddess Bastet, which symbolized protection and good health, Bastetodon would likely have ruled the prehistoric food chain in what was then a lush, forested environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revisiting-bastetodon-fossils">Revisiting Bastetodon fossils</h2>



Beyond describing Bastetodon, the study also revisits fossils discovered in the same region more than a century ago. 



These lion-sized hyaenodont remains were reclassified under the genus Sekhmetops, named for the lion-headed Egyptian goddess Sekhmet, a deity associated with war and wrath. 



The findings show Bastetodon and Sekhmetops both belonged to an African lineage of hyaenodonts that later spread into Asia, Europe, India, and North America. 



This new evidence challenges older assumptions that placed such fossils with hyaenodont groups from Europe.



The symbolic link between Bastet and Sekhmet in ancient Egyptian lore is mirrored in these two genera of apex predators. 



The researchers noted that by 18 million years ago, some related hyaenodonts evolved into the largest mammalian carnivores of their time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-predators-in-egypt-nbsp">Ancient predators in Egypt&nbsp;</h2>



The Fayum Depression, now an arid desert, once hosted a flourishing tropical habitat teeming with mammalian life. 



Its rock layers, dating from the Eocene through the Oligocene, capture a 15-million-year window during which global climates shifted from warmer to cooler conditions. 



The hyaenodonts thrived in this dynamic part of Egypt, feeding on the abundant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-biodiversity-benefits-from-large-herbivores-like-elephants-and-moose/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">herbivores</a> and smaller predators.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Bastetodon-syrtos_ancient-Egyptian-predator_skull-diagram_credit-Ahmad-Morsi_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Bastetodon-syrtos_ancient-Egyptian-predator_skull-diagram_credit-Ahmad-Morsi_1s.webp" alt="Cranium of Bastetodon syrtos. A, C, E, the paratype (MUVP 634) cranium of Bastetodon syrtos in A, dorsal; C, ventral; and E, left lateral view. B, D, F, cranial bones defined and identified on MUVP 634 in B, dorsal; D, ventral; and F, left lateral view. Credit: Ahmed Morsi" class="wp-image-1960382"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Cranium of Bastetodon syrtos. A, C, E, the paratype (MUVP 634) cranium of Bastetodon syrtos in A, dorsal; C, ventral; and E, left lateral view. B, D, F, cranial bones defined and identified on MUVP 634 in B, dorsal; D, ventral; and F, left lateral view. Credit: Ahmed Morsi</figcaption></figure>



Over time, tectonic events in Africa allowed modern types of carnivores - cats, dogs, and hyenas - to move in, while changing environments diminished prey for specialized hunters like Bastetodon.&nbsp;



Eventually, hyaenodonts disappeared, leaving newer predators to dominate the evolving African ecosystems.



“The discovery of Bastetodon is a significant achievement in understanding the diversity and evolution of hyaenodonts and their global distribution,” Al-Ashqar noted. 



“We are eager to continue our research to unravel the intricate relationships between these ancient predators and their environments over time and across continents.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prehistoric-predators-to-modern-carnivores-nbsp">Prehistoric predators to modern carnivores&nbsp;</h2>



“The Fayum is one of the most important fossil areas in Africa,” said study co-author Matt Borths, curator of fossils at the <a href="https://lemur.duke.edu/discover/dlcmnh/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Duke Lemur Center Museum of Natural History</a>.&nbsp;



“Without it, we would know very little about the origins of African ecosystems and the evolution of African mammals like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extinct-elephant-fossils-reveal-early-evidence-of-animal-butchery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elephants</a>, primates, and hyaenodonts."



Paleontologists have been working in the Fayum for over a century, but the Sallam Lab demonstrated there is more to discover in this remarkable region.



Over the decades, research in Fayum has contributed major findings about early elephants, early primates, and now, additional hyaenodont species.&nbsp;



Each new fossil further clarifies the interplay between climatic shifts and the rise - or extinction - of ancient mammals.&nbsp;



Researchers plan to continue unearthing fossils and refining the complex narrative of how prehistoric African predators adapted, diversified, and eventually gave way to modern carnivores.



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02724634.2024.2442472" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>.



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'Fearsome' predator was once king of the ancient Egyptian forests, then mysteriously vanished

A rare, nearly complete skull unearthed in the Egyptian desert...

Scientists have developed an AI-powered modeling method that mimics how birds produce songs, similar to how large language models like ChatGPT generate human sentences.&nbsp;



By training on birdsong recordings, the model successfully recreates sequences of Bengalese <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/finch-beaks-and-bird-songs-a-new-story-of-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">finch</a> songs, revealing important insights into how birds structure their vocalizations.&nbsp;



The research, published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0522-24.2024" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Journal of Neuroscience</a>, could enhance understanding of the neurobiology behind language processing and how humans and animals form complex vocal patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birdsongs-and-human-language">Birdsongs and human language</h2>



Both birds and humans arrange their vocal expressions in structured ways. In human speech, words follow specific grammatical rules, while birds sing in organized syllabic patterns.



“Although much simpler, the sequences of a bird’s song syllables are organized in a similar way to human language, so birds provide a good model to explore the neurobiology of language,” said Dezhe Jin, an associate professor of physics at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a>’s Eberly College of Science and lead author of the study.



One key aspect of both birdsong and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-songs-human-speech-common-vocal-genetic-origin-syrinx/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human language</a> is context dependence - where previous sounds influence what comes next. In English, for example, the phrase “flies like” can have different meanings depending on what follows.&nbsp;



For instance, while “time flies like an arrow” is a statement about time, “fruit flies like bananas” is one about insects and food. If we mix these up - “time flies like bananas” - the meaning becomes nonsensical.&nbsp;



The same principle applies to birds: the order of their syllables is not random but follows specific patterns that make their songs recognizable.



“We know from our previous work that the songs of Bengalese finches also have context dependence,” Jin said. “In this study, we developed a new statistical method to better quantify context dependence in individual birds and start to understand how it is wired in the brain.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-training-a-generative-birdsong-model">Training a generative birdsong model</h2>



The research team analyzed previously recorded songs from six Bengalese finches, each of which sings 7 to 15 syllables per sequence. Their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-can-monitor-biodiversity-through-animal-sounds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI</a> model, similar to large language models, learns the probability of different syllables appearing in sequences - akin to how ChatGPT predicts words based on past text.



The model is built using Markov models, a method that maps sequences of events by tracking what comes next based on past occurrences. Imagine a flowchart where each syllable leads to a range of possible next syllables, with probabilities assigned to each transition.



“Basic Markov models are quite simple, but they tend to overgeneralize, meaning they might result in sequences that don’t actually exist,” Jin explained.&nbsp;



“Here, we used a specific type of model called a Partially Observable Markov Model that allowed us to incorporate context dependence, adding more connections to what syllables typically go together. The added complexity allows for more accurate models.”



Using their approach, the team generated a range of possible models for each bird’s song, gradually refining them to ensure they only produced sequences that actually exist in the bird’s natural repertoire.&nbsp;



The final models accurately reflected each bird’s real singing patterns while identifying which syllables were context-dependent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-birdsong-model-revealed">What the birdsong model revealed</h2>



The results showed that all six birds displayed context dependence in their songs, meaning they carefully structured their syllable sequences rather than singing randomly. However, the degree of context dependence varied between individuals.



“This could be due to several factors, including aspects of the birds’ brains,” Jin explained. “Or, because these songs are learned, this could be related to the amount of context dependence in their tutor’s songs.”



To explore this further, the researchers studied birds that could not hear their own songs. The results were striking. These birds showed a dramatic reduction in context-dependent syllables, suggesting that auditory feedback is crucial in shaping how birds refine their songs.



This finding supports the idea that birds listen to themselves and adjust their vocal patterns based on what they hear, much like how humans refine speech and grammar while learning a language.



“The birds are listening to themselves and adjusting their song based on what they hear, and the related machinery in the brain likely plays a role in context dependence,” Jin said.&nbsp;



“In the future, we would also like to map neuron states to specific syllables. Our study suggests that, even when a bird is singing the same syllable, different sets of neurons might be active.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-applications-of-the-research">Broader applications of the research </h2>



The researchers emphasize that this new AI-based modeling technique could be applied not just to birdsong, but to other animal vocalizations and behavioral patterns.



“We actually used this method with the English language and were able to generate text that is mostly grammatical,” Jin said. “Of course, we’re not trying to create a new generative language model, but it is interesting that the same kind of model can handle both birdsong and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-songs-share-very-similar-patterns-with-human-language/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human language</a>.”



This suggests that the neural mechanisms behind birdsong and human language may share deeper similarities than previously thought.&nbsp;



Some philosophers argue that human grammar is a uniquely complex feature of cognition, but this study raises questions about how truly unique human language is if birds follow similar rules.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-human-language-and-communication">Understanding human language and communication </h2>



This research opens up new possibilities for understanding how brains - both bird and human - encode language and communication. In the future, scientists hope to map neuronal activity during song production to see which brain circuits control context dependence.



The experts would also like to apply AI models to other vocal species - such as whales, dolphins, and primates - to identify common patterns in communication.



Furthermore, the goal is to develop better speech-related AI systems based on how real biological brains organize vocalization sequences.



Ultimately, this work bridges the gap between neuroscience, AI, and linguistics, offering new clues about how brains generate structured communication across species.&nbsp;



As AI technology continues to evolve, models trained on birdsongs could help us better understand how our own brains process language and adapt speech over time.



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AI-generated birdsongs may shed new light on human language

Scientists have developed an AI-powered modeling method that mimics how...

For decades, scientists believed that arachnids, a group that includes spiders, scorpions, mites, and horseshoe crabs, made a single transition from water to land. This long-standing view shaped evolutionary biology, influencing how researchers classified and studied these creatures. 



However, a new study presents a different picture, suggesting that this transition happened multiple times rather than once.



The research also highlights the role of whole-genome duplication in shaping key traits in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/australias-deadliest-spider-is-actually-three-different-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spiders</a> and scorpions, particularly silk production and venom synthesis. These genetic changes may have played a crucial role in their evolutionary success. 



By challenging traditional ideas, this study reshapes the way we understand chelicerate evolution and provides new directions for future research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-details-about-arachnid-evolution">New details about arachnid evolution</h2>



Dr. Efrat Gavish-Regev from The National Natural History Collections at <a href="https://en.huji.ac.il" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Hebrew University</a> of Jerusalem and Professor Prashant P. Sharma from the <a href="https://www.wisc.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Wisconsin</a> have taken a fresh approach to chelicerate evolution. 



Their review explores how molecular phylogenetics, evolutionary developmental biology, and genomic research have transformed our understanding of these arthropods.



Traditionally, arachnids were classified as a monophyletic terrestrial group, meaning they descended from a single land-dwelling ancestor. However, recent phylogenomic studies challenge this notion. 



The studies indicate that horseshoe crabs are not a separate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/slingshot-spiders-listen-for-the-right-moment-to-launch-their-webs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lineage</a> but are actually nested within the arachnid group.



This suggests that arachnids did not evolve from a single land colonization event. Instead, different arachnid groups may have independently <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-fungus-gibellula-attenboroughii-infects-and-controls-spiders-turning-them-into-zombies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adapted</a> to life on land at different points in their evolutionary history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arachnid-groups-evolved-independently">Arachnid groups evolved independently </h2>



“The idea that all arachnids share a single terrestrial ancestor has been widely accepted for decades, but the latest molecular evidence and a different interposition of some homologies points to a more complex scenario,” said Dr. Gavish-Regev.



“Instead of a straightforward transition from water to land, our research suggests that different arachnid groups may have independently adapted to terrestrial life at different points in their evolutionary history.”



This revelation raises important questions about how these adaptations occurred. If multiple groups of arachnids transitioned to land separately, then different environmental pressures and genetic changes must have influenced their evolution. 



Some species may have gradually developed adaptations for land, while others may have made more sudden transitions. This multi-event hypothesis challenges existing evolutionary models and forces scientists to rethink how arachnids adapted to terrestrial life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-whole-genome-duplication">Role of whole-genome duplication</h2>



One of the key findings of this study is the role of whole-genome duplication in arachnid evolution. This process, where an organism duplicates its entire genetic code, is a powerful driver of evolutionary change. 



By having extra copies of genes, species can experiment with new traits while retaining essential functions.



In spiders and scorpions, whole-genome duplication may have played a direct role in the evolution of important characteristics like silk production and venom synthesis. 



These traits have been crucial to the survival and diversification of arachnids, allowing them to hunt, defend themselves, and adapt to different environments. 



Without whole-genome duplication, the vast diversity of spiders and scorpions seen today might not have been possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-evolutionary-changes-in-arachnids">Key evolutionary changes in arachnids</h2>



“Arachnoid evolution has been shaped by a number of factors, including gene duplications that likely played a role in the development of key traits,” explained Professor Sharma.



“By combining phylogenetic research with new gene-editing tools, we are now in a position to explore these evolutionary changes in greater detail than ever before.”



With modern genetic research tools, scientists can now examine the effects of whole-genome duplication more closely. By studying these genetic changes, they can trace how certain genes evolved and what role they played in shaping arachnid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/save-a-spider-day-protecting-our-connection-with-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traits</a>. 



This research not only improves our understanding of evolutionary biology but also provides insights into how genes influence the development of complex traits across different species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advancements-in-chelicerate-phylogeny">Advancements in chelicerate phylogeny</h2>



Understanding the evolutionary relationships between different chelicerate species has been a long-standing challenge. 



Some relationships remain unresolved, but advances in genomic techniques are beginning to provide more clarity. As more high-quality genomic data becomes available, researchers expect to answer some of the remaining questions about arachnid evolution.



By mapping out the evolutionary tree of chelicerates, scientists can better understand how different species are related and how their traits evolved. This has broader implications for studying the diversity of life and the mechanisms that drive adaptation in different environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



This research has significance beyond evolutionary biology. Understanding arachnid evolution has practical applications in various fields, including pest management, biomedicine, and bio-inspired materials.



By studying how certain traits evolved, scientists can develop new approaches to pest control, design medical treatments based on venom components, and create materials inspired by spider silk.



A growing body of genetic data continues to shape scientific understanding of evolutionary history. As new studies build on these findings, researchers will gain an even clearer picture of how arachnids adapted to their environments.



These discoveries could lead to new breakthroughs in biology, genetics, and even biotechnology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-research-on-arachnids">Evolutionary research on arachnids</h2>



While this study provides valuable insights, it also opens up many new questions. 



If arachnids transitioned to land multiple times, what environmental factors drove these changes? Were there specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spider-venom-has-hidden-biochemical-value/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic mechanisms</a> that made the transition easier for some groups? How do these findings compare to other arthropod lineages that also moved from water to land?



Future research will likely explore these questions using even more advanced genomic tools. As genetic sequencing technology improves, scientists will be able to examine ancient evolutionary events with greater precision. 



This will help refine evolutionary models and improve our understanding of how life adapts to new environments.



The journey of arachnids from water to land is more complex than previously thought. By revising traditional evolutionary models, this study lays the foundation for new discoveries in evolutionary biology. As more data emerges, the fascinating story of arachnid evolution will continue to unfold.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-ento-022024-011250" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Annual Review of Entomology</a>.



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Rethinking arachnid evolution: The surprising history of spiders

For decades, scientists believed that arachnids, a group that includes...

Does your dog ignore your gestures when it matters most? Many owners find that simple commands and gestures sometimes fall flat, especially when distractions creep into the picture.



Researchers have been testing how to capture a dog’s interest using high-tech gear that tracks eye movement. Dr. Christoph Voelter from the <a href="https://www.vetmeduni.ac.at/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Veterinary Medicine</a> in Vienna led a team that has pinpointed a powerful combination for guiding a dog’s focus. 



“The owner’s gaze and gesture are useful separately, but combined they are stronger,” said Dr. Voelter, lead author of the study. 



His group designed special headgear to pinpoint precisely where dogs look under different conditions, and were able to shed light on what <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-learn-better-with-praise-and-petting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> really respond to and why that matters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-dogs-understand-human-gestures">How dogs understand human gestures</h2>



Most people believe their pets can read basic cues, but scientists have been keen to explore how dogs interpret our gestures.



<a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.2765" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers</a> in Austria tested multiple breeds of dogs that were fitted with helmets that tracked eye movements in real time. They found that dogs locked onto a target most reliably when a person simultaneously stared and pointed at the same object.



The findings line up with <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11926681/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">previous work</a> suggesting that domesticated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-personality-algorithm-will-improve-work-and-home-placement/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> have learned to follow specific signals through centuries of living with humans. 



In many cultures, pointing is used every day to show a pet where to go or what to do. Gaze, however, has not always been seen as a strong indicator on its own.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pointing-works-better-with-eye-contact">Pointing works better with eye contact</h2>



Pointing by itself can guide a dog in the right direction. However, the new research noted that some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-breed-does-not-define-performance-and-ability/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> don’t always follow the point unless the human also looks directly at the object. Eye contact that is focused on the target seems to cement the dog’s understanding.



Fake throws - a playful tease that many owners try - were not nearly as successful. Eye trackers showed that dogs glanced toward the direction of the pretend toss but consistently failed to pick the correct spot.



This suggests that dogs need more than a big motion; they rely on precise visual hints to zero in on what you want them to see.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-through-ostensive-cues">Focus through ostensive cues</h2>



Ostensive signals, such as calling the dog’s name or making clear eye contact, often signal that communication is about to happen.



Dogs appear to respond better when they sense we are talking to them directly. Adding a gesture, like pointing, clarifies the message. When pointing is paired with a gaze toward the object, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rewards-of-dog-ownership-outweigh-the-challenges/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> show increased attention and are more likely to do what we ask.



Researchers in other <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982211013935">studies</a> have observed that dogs can follow a human’s gaze, though not as reliably as they follow a pointed hand. This difference might be rooted in what dogs experienced while growing up. 



The more exposure they have to humans who use combined signals, the more these dogs will interpret eye contact and pointing as meaningful directions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eye-tracking-reveals-how-dogs-focus">Eye-tracking reveals how dogs focus </h2>



Cutting-edge technology that straps onto a dog’s head may sound strange, but it gives valuable insight. It captures where a dog’s gaze lands within fractions of a second. If you think of it as a GPS for a dog’s eyes, you can see which parts of a person’s face or body the dog is looking at.



The researchers noticed that when dogs saw a scientist point and look, their line of sight jumped quickly between the pointing hand, the person’s face, and the correct object. This pattern did not appear when the scientist only pretended to throw a ball.



In this scenario, the dogs glanced in the broad direction but often missed the hidden treat, which backs up the idea that precise cues matter more than just big movements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-open-questions-and-next-steps">Open questions and next steps</h2>



“Is it for them more like an imperative directive to go somewhere? Or do they understand it more in a communicative way?” Dr. Voelter hopes to explore these ideas further.



New research is looking at whether dogs also learn and memorize things better when people speak to them and give them pointed gestures at the same time.



Some experts think these insights could apply to practical training. If a dog trainer or veterinarian knows that eye contact plus gestures work best, they might incorporate both cues for faster results. 



Many owners might not realize that a clear gaze cue can be the extra push that turns a confused dog into a confident companion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-dog-bond-in-everyday-life">Human-dog bond in everyday life</h2>



Taking a step beyond tricks, the new study highlights just how much dogs pay attention to facial and body movements.



Many owners use a baby voice or wave their hands wildly to get attention, but the study suggests that clarity is key. A calm, purposeful look at the object while pointing may be more convincing than chaotic movements.



Behavioral experts say the results might help older dogs or rescue <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/this-simple-technique-instantly-reduces-heat-stress-in-dogs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> adjust to new homes. Clear signals could reduce stress, since the dog understands exactly what’s being indicated, rather than random commotion that leaves them guessing. 



This approach also benefits people who rely on service dogs, where precise communication is crucial.



The study is published in <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.2765" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</a>.



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Scientists learn how to make dogs 'pay attention' and focus more on what their humans want

Does your dog ignore your gestures when it matters most?...

Bird populations depend on a stable food supply, especially during breeding seasons when their energy needs are highest. Insect-eating birds rely on various prey, but moths play a particularly important role in some regions. 



A recent study explored how fluctuations in moth abundance influence bird populations across Finland. Researchers found that this relationship varies by region, with northern areas showing a stronger connection between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moth-makes-its-flat-wings-appear-3d-to-trick-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moth numbers</a> and bird abundance.



By analyzing long-term data, scientists uncovered patterns that highlight how changes in insect populations might affect bird survival and reproduction. 



These findings provide valuable insights into broader ecological dynamics, reinforcing concerns about the cascading effects of insect declines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-season-moths-and-bird-abundance">Early-season moths and bird abundance</h2>



The study revealed a clear link between birds that depend on caterpillars and the abundance of moths that overwinter as eggs or adults. 



These early-season moths provide a crucial food source for many resident and long-distance migratory forest birds during their breeding period. 



The strongest connection was observed in the north-boreal zone, where early-season moth populations had a noticeable impact on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-defense-against-the-invasive-spongy-moth-is-fading/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird numbers</a>.



Birds in these regions rely heavily on insect prey during spring, and any fluctuations in moth populations can significantly influence bird abundance. 



The results suggest that if insect populations decline, birds that rely on these food sources could face serious challenges.



The study emphasizes how environmental conditions shape species interactions, reinforcing the idea that changes in one part of the ecosystem can have far-reaching effects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-northern-birds-depend-more-on-moths">Northern birds depend more on moths</h2>



One of the key findings of the study was the regional variation in the moth-bird <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-extinctions-shatter-the-harmonious-balance-of-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">relationship</a>. 



While a strong connection was evident in the north, the same dependency was not found in southern and central Finland. Researchers believe that environmental differences explain this pattern.



“The reason why moth abundance affected bird abundance only in northern Finland is that, in the north, bird breeding seasons are short, food webs are relatively simple, and temporal moth abundance fluctuations from year to year are naturally strong," explained Mahtab Yazdanian, the lead author and a doctoral researcher at the <a href="https://www.oulu.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oulu</a>.



"Therefore, abundance changes of a particular group of insect prey more likely reflect in bird abundance in northern Finland than in central or southern Finland." 



In other words, birds in the north are more reliant on moth preys compared to birds in the central and southern regions of Finland.



This explanation highlights how ecological conditions shape species interactions. In the north, birds have fewer alternative food sources, and their breeding seasons are tightly linked to the availability of moths. 



As a result, any fluctuations in moth numbers directly affect bird populations, making them more vulnerable to environmental changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-moth-connection">Bird-moth connection</h2>



One of the most valuable aspects of the study was its use of long-term monitoring data. Spanning 26 years, the dataset provided a unique opportunity to examine patterns that might not be visible in short-term studies.



“This study highlights the value of long-term monitoring programmes. We are fortunate in Finland to have detailed abundance data for both moths and birds, which our study combines in full for the first time,” explained Tuomas Kankaanpää, a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Oulu.



Long-term datasets are rare in ecological research, yet they are essential for understanding complex interactions in natural ecosystems. 



Without sustained monitoring efforts, it would be nearly impossible to detect gradual shifts in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/city-moths-develop-smaller-wings-survive-light-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> populations or identify key factors influencing their survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complexity-of-food-webs">Complexity of food webs</h2>



The study also sheds light on the challenges of studying ecosystem dynamics. Understanding how fluctuations in insect populations influence birds is difficult because natural environments are shaped by multiple interacting factors.



“Complexities in the ecosystem, the food web, and the insect populations' fluctuations have cascading effects on higher trophic levels like birds that are really difficult to systematically study in nature, where everything affects everything,” Yazdanian commented.



Finland’s exceptional long-term monitoring programs provided valuable data on nearly 80 bird species and 400 moth species dating back to 1993. 



These datasets allow researchers to track ecological changes over time, offering insights that would otherwise be impossible to obtain.



The study highlights how detailed monitoring can help identify critical patterns in species interactions, ultimately contributing to better conservation strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-and-conservation-efforts">Future research and conservation efforts</h2>



The study’s findings highlight the urgent need for continued research on how insect declines affect bird populations. 



Insect populations worldwide face threats from habitat loss, climate change, and pollution, and it is essential to understand how these changes impact animals that are at higher levels in the food web.



Ongoing research at the University of Oulu aims to pinpoint which moth species are most important as food sources for different bird species. 



Advances in DNA meta-barcoding technology are helping researchers analyze bird diets more accurately. 



By identifying multiple species from mixed samples, scientists can gain a deeper understanding of the specific relationships between birds and their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-are-moving-north-and-breeding-earlier-in-a-changing-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insect</a> prey.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-strategies">Conservation strategies</h2>



The results of this study have significant implications for conservation efforts. Declining insect populations not only threaten biodiversity but also disrupt entire food webs. 



By considering the entire food web, conservation strategies can be more effective in protecting bird populations. 



Supporting insect diversity through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-we-failing-the-worlds-most-threatened-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat conservation</a> and sustainable land-use practices will help maintain the delicate balance between species.



Protecting natural ecosystems requires a comprehensive approach that takes into account both the direct and indirect effects of environmental change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-collaborative-research-effort">A collaborative research effort</h2>



The study was led by the University of Oulu and brought together experts from multiple institutions.



Their combined expertise played a crucial role in uncovering new insights into the relationship between moths and birds.



As researchers continue to investigate these complex ecological interactions, studies like this will provide valuable knowledge for conservation efforts. 



Understanding the intricate connections between species helps ensure that both birds and their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moths-may-struggle-to-move-in-response-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insect</a> prey can thrive in a rapidly changing world.



-----



The study was led by the University of Oulu and multiple institutions, including the Finnish Environment Institute (<a href="https://www.syke.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SYKE</a>), Finnish Museum of Natural History (<a href="https://www.helsinki.fi/en/luomus/visit-us/natural-history-museum" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LUOMUS</a>), <a href="https://www.ulapland.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Lapland</a>, and <a href="https://www.vub.be/nl" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vrije Universiteit Brussel</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ele.14467" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology Letters</a>.



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Birds communities struggle as moth populations decline

Bird populations depend on a stable food supply, especially during...

Bird evolution has taken a remarkable turn with the discovery of two ancient fossils from a species named Baminornis zhenghensis, which lived in what is now southeast China's Fujian Province.



Dated to approximately 149 million years ago, these Jurassic-era fossils provide crucial insights into the early diversification of birds. 



The fossils were unearthed by a team of scientists from the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology <a href="http://english.ivpp.cas.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">(IVPP)</a> of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, which is a leading institution in paleontological research.



Spearheading the study was Professor Wang Min, whose work continues to reshape our understanding of avian ancestry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-evolution-theory-the-basics">Bird evolution theory - the basics</h2>



The current leading theory on bird evolution says that modern birds evolved from small, feathered theropod dinosaurs - yep, the same group that includes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-rex-was-about-70-percent-bigger-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">T. rex</a>.



Scientists believe that around 150 million years ago, some of these dinosaurs developed feathers not just for warmth but also for gliding and eventually powered flight. 



The famous Archaeopteryx, often called the "first bird," had both dinosaur-like traits (teeth, claws, and a long bony tail) and bird-like features (feathers and wings). 



Over millions of years, these early birds became lighter, developed better flying skills, and adapted to different environments, eventually giving rise to the diverse bird species we see today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-the-shadows-of-archaeopteryx">From the shadows of Archaeopteryx</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chinese-fossil-provides-a-new-glimpse-into-early-bird-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Archaeopteryx</a>, despite its feathered wings, bears close resemblance to non-avialan <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-were-going-strong-when-the-deadly-asteroid-struck/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a>.



Notably, this is due to its distinctively long reptilian tail - a vivid departure from the short-tailed morphology observed in modern and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oldest-known-bird-footprints-discovered-in-australia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cretaceous birds</a>.



Reflecting on the classification of Archaeopteryx, recent studies have placed it as a deinonychosaurian dinosaur, a sister group to birds.



This brings up an intriguing question: Do we have any definitive records of Jurassic birds?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-baminornis-zhenghensis">Meet Baminornis zhenghensis</h2>



This is where the new discovery steps in. Among the two fossils found in Fujian Province, the team named one Baminornis zhenghensis. 



This fossil exhibits an exclusive set of features: the shoulder and pelvic girdles resemble ornithothoracine birds, and there is an early-stage hand structure similar to that found in non-avialan dinosaurs.



Perhaps a standout feature of Baminornis zhenghensis is its short tail that ends in a compound bone called the pygostyle, a feature that is also prominent in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-bird-skulls-retain-some-dinosaur-traits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">contemporary birds</a>.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/bird-evolution_Baminornis-zhenghensis-species_timeline-pushed-back_credit-Zhao-Chuang_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/bird-evolution_Baminornis-zhenghensis-species_timeline-pushed-back_credit-Zhao-Chuang_1s.webp" alt="Life reconstruction of the Jurassic bird Baminornis zhenghensis from the Zhenghe Fauna. Credit: Zhao Chuang" class="wp-image-1960254"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Life reconstruction of the Jurassic bird Baminornis zhenghensis from the Zhenghe Fauna. Credit: Zhao Chuang</figcaption></figure>



"Previously, the oldest record of short-tailed birds is from the Early Cretaceous. Baminornis zhenghensis is the sole Jurassic and the oldest short-tailed bird yet discovered, pushing back the appearance of this derived bird feature by nearly 20 million years," Prof. Wang stated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-a-large-gap-in-bird-evolution">Bridging a large gap in bird evolution</h2>



What makes this discovery so intriguing? 



These fossils present compelling evidence that birds began diversifying much earlier than previously thought.



Typically, Earth's most diverse group of terrestrial vertebrates - birds, are believed to have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chinese-fossil-provides-a-new-glimpse-into-early-bird-evolution/">diversified </a>during the Jurassic period. 



But the details of this diversification were shrouded in mystery due to a significant shortage of tangible fossil records.



Until now, the only widely accepted Jurassic bird was Archaeopteryx.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-baminornis-zhenghensis-an-early-bird">Baminornis zhenghensis: An early bird</h2>



To fully understand the positioning of Baminornis zhenghensis in the bird evolution tree, the research team utilized several investigative methods.



The results indicated that this bird had evolved from Archaeopteryx, making it one of the oldest birds ever found.



"If we take a step back, and reconsider the phylogenetic uncertainty of Archaeopteryx, we do not doubt that Baminornis zhenghensis is the true Jurassic bird," Dr. Zhou Zhonghe, a co-author of the study, stated confidently 



The second fossil is far from complete and consists solely of a furcula (a bone in the chest of birds). 



Despite its poor preservation, the team remains hopeful that it might help in establishing the evolutionary link between non-avialan and avialan theropods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



The researchers revealed that the results of the analyses support that this furcula belonged to a member of the Ornithuromorpha, a diverse set of Cretaceous birds.



Yet, given its preserved state, they refrained from naming a new species based on this single bone.



In conclusion, this discovery, might not have answered all the questions regarding bird evolution, but it surely has opened up a new arena for possibilities and future discoveries. 



Supporting the importance of fossils in piecing together the past, these artifacts from the Jurassic era have given us a glimpse into the true evolutionary journey of birds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-baminornis-zhenghensis-and-bird-evolution">Baminornis zhenghensis and bird evolution</h2>



The discovery of Baminornis zhenghensis provides compelling evidence that bird evolution was already well underway by the late Jurassic period.



By bridging a crucial gap in the fossil record, these newly unearthed fossils reshape our understanding of how early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-have-adapted-to-human-activities-for-thousands-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds diversified and adapted</a>. 



Scientists believe that such findings will continue to refine the evolutionary timeline, revealing more about the structural transformations that led to modern avian species. 



Future excavations may yet unveil more missing pieces in the intricate puzzle of bird evolution.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08410-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Bird evolution timeline pushed back at least 20 million years by new discovery

Bird evolution has taken a remarkable turn with the discovery...

Monarch butterflies are among the most studied insects in the world due to their impressive seasonal journeys across North America. Yet, their populations face mounting challenges as climate change alters the landscapes they rely on.



Harlan Radcliff is an amateur butterfly enthusiast. For over 17 years, he dedicated his lunch breaks to observing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monarch-butterflies-face-steep-decline-in-the-western-u-s/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">monarchs</a> at Camp Dodge, a military installation in Iowa.



What started as a personal passion turned into an invaluable scientific record. His meticulous notes allowed researchers to analyze how climate variations are affecting monarch migration patterns in the 21st century.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-record-of-monarch-activity">Long-term record of monarch activity</h2>



Between April and November, from 2003 to 2019, Radcliff carefully recorded the dates, times, locations, and numbers of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/creating-new-forests-to-assist-monarch-butterfly-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterflies</a> he spotted. 



He had no idea at the time that his efforts would one day shape a significant scientific study. His dataset provided a rare long-term record of monarch activity in the heart of their summer breeding range.



Professor Diane Debinski, head of Montana State University’s <a href="https://www.montana.edu/ecology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Ecology</a>, led a research team that used Radcliff’s observations to study monarch migration.



Funded by the <a href="https://www.defense.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Department of Defense</a>, the study was part of a broader effort to understand how climate change is affecting butterfly species on military lands.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-monarch-migration">Climate change and monarch migration</h2>



Monarch butterflies are unique in their migration patterns. Eastern monarchs travel between Mexico and the U.S., spending summers east of the Rocky Mountains. Western monarchs winter in California and migrate west of the Rockies during the summer.



The study aimed to examine the phenology of Camp Dodge’s monarchs. This involved looking at the timing of key events in their life cycle, such as arrival, departure, and peak abundance. 



Changes in these timings can affect their survival, reproductive success, and overall population health.



“We wanted to look at phenology of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monarch-butterflies-shift-to-winter-breeding-for-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterflies</a> and test whether it was shifting, and if it was, to ask how that might affect the viability of the populations over the long term,” explained Professor Debinski.



The team also analyzed the phenology of milkweed, the monarchs’ primary host plant. Monarch caterpillars rely on milkweed for survival, making it essential to understand whether its growing season was shifting in sync with butterfly migration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-phenological-shifts-in-monarchs">Testing phenological shifts in monarchs</h2>



The researchers conducted fieldwork in 2020 to test whether monarch arrival times had changed over the years. 



They placed monarch eggs on milkweed plants at different intervals - some two weeks earlier than historical records, some at the expected time, and others two weeks later. This approach helped them determine whether changes in migration timing had consequences for the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-are-monarch-butterflies-vanishing-in-the-winter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterflies' development</a>.



The initial hypothesis was that monarchs would arrive earlier due to climate change, mirroring patterns observed in other species. However, the data revealed something unexpected. 



The timing of monarch arrival remained consistent from 2003 to 2019, but their fall departure was delayed. By 2019, monarchs were staying at Camp Dodge about nine days longer than they had in 2003.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-risks-of-a-longer-fall-season">Risks of a longer fall season </h2>



The shift in fall departure raised important questions about the effects of climate change on monarchs. Interestingly, milkweed also showed a similar pattern, blooming later into the season.



“What we saw was that milkweed herbarium specimens were collected later over time, indicating that they were blooming longer over time, and monarchs were in the field as adults longer over time, which means that the fall season was actually indicating a change,” noted Professor Debinski.



While a longer fall season might seem beneficial, it carries potential risks. Butterflies staying in the field longer could be exposed to more predators and parasites. 



Additionally, a longer growing season might create a “development trap,” where monarchs begin a phase of their life cycle too late to complete it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-shifts-may-help-or-harm-monarchs">Climate shifts may help or harm monarchs</h2>



A development trap occurs when environmental changes encourage butterflies to lay eggs late in the season, but those eggs fail to develop into adults before winter arrives. This could lead to increased mortality rates, reducing overall <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monarch-butterflies-may-be-added-to-the-endangered-species-list/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">population</a> numbers.



The field experiment confirmed that a shift in monarch timing could have costly effects. The researchers observed that early-season larval survival was highest when egg hatching matched historical monarch arrivals. 



However, when eggs were placed on milkweed two weeks earlier than usual, survival rates dropped. 



These findings highlight the delicate balance monarchs must maintain with their environment. Even small changes in climate and plant growth cycles can disrupt their lifecycle, potentially leading to population declines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-monarch-population-changes">Tracking monarch population changes</h2>



Although Radcliff has since passed away, his careful documentation provided an essential foundation for this research. 



His records allowed scientists to track monarch population changes at Camp Dodge over nearly two decades. The study confirmed that monarch populations declined between 2003 and 2019, reflecting broader trends observed by the <a href="https://www.fws.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service</a>.



“Discussions about phenology often exclude migratory butterflies, because they experience climates in multiple places,” said Professor Debinski.



“Our research showed that even migratory species can show shifts in phenology. The more information we have about phenology, population sizes and population growth rates, the better we will be able to conserve monarch butterflies and many other species of conservation concern.”



This research serves as a reminder of the importance of long-term ecological data. Without Radcliff’s commitment to documenting monarchs year after year, scientists might have missed these critical trends. 



As climate change continues to shape ecosystems, studies like this one will help conservationists understand how best to protect the iconic monarch butterflies for future generations.



The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2656.70004" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Animal Ecology</a>. 



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Monarch butterflies are delaying their migration in a warmer climate

Monarch butterflies are among the most studied insects in the...

Toxins can give valuable insights into how molecules interact with biological targets, helping scientists design safer and more effective compounds.



Whether for life-saving drugs, species control, or agriculture, understanding a molecule’s precise targets is crucial for ensuring its safe and effective use.



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.weizmann.ac.il/pages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Weizmann Institute</a> in Israel have developed an innovative AI-powered pipeline to predict how natural toxins interact with proteins. 



By combining artificial intelligence with traditional research methods, they are unlocking new possibilities in ecological studies and drug development.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-secrets-of-a-deadly-snail-toxin">Secrets of a deadly snail toxin</h2>



The journey of these scientists kicked off from an unlikely source - a toxin from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cone-snail-venom-could-be-used-to-produce-painkillers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cone snail</a> (Conus striatus) that affects both insects and fish. This protein is composed of 60 amino acids and is shot into the prey by the snail using a sharp barb.



Dr. Izhar Karbat and Dr. Eitan Reuveny set out to investigate how the cone snail toxin Conkunitzin-S1 (Cs1) works to immobilize fish, despite not affecting mammals or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mollusks-evolution-shishania-aculeata-spiny-armor-no-shells-500-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mollusks</a>.



The experts found that Cs1 blocks potassium channels that are central to cell function in fruit flies and other insects. However, the molecular target of this toxin in fish remained a mystery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turning-to-ai-for-answers">Turning to AI for answers</h2>



Unable to pinpoint the target of the Conkunitzin toxin using traditional methods, the scientists turned to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-intelligence-proves-very-useful-to-doctors-when-diagnosing-patients/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">artificial intelligence</a>.



“Three years ago, we tried our best tools at the time to find the target of the Conkunitzin toxin, and we failed because the tools were not good enough. And then came a big revolution in structural biology driven by artificial intelligence,” said Karbat.



This presented an invaluable tool for their research, which enabled the experts to use a two-pronged approach to identify the fish potassium channels that were most vulnerable to Cs1.



They harnessed the power of AlphaFold, an AI program, to predict how the toxin might bind to different fish potassium channels. 



Next, the researchers developed another AI model, ET3, to analyze how water molecules navigate around these channels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-pinpoints-the-toxin-s-true-targets">AI pinpoints the toxin’s true targets</h2>



By leveraging ET3 to analyze a broad range of fish potassium channels - beyond what was previously possible - the experts identified the exact channels targeted by Cs1 and how the toxin disrupts their function.



Essentially, if potassium channels act as tiny doors regulating ion flow in and out of cells, Cs1 functions like a lock that jams those doors shut.



“Using molecular dynamics and the new AI-driven structural tools, we were able to find the small subset of channels in fish which bind our toxins with high affinity and are probably the real target of the cone snail,” said Dr. Karbat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-precise-targets-for-new-drugs">Identifying precise targets for new drugs </h2>



Beyond unraveling the mystery of Cs1’s impact on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceans-are-quickly-losing-ability-to-support-fish-due-to-plankton-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a>, the researchers see broader applications for their AI-powered approach. 



“This new pipeline offers exciting opportunities and future prospects with ecological studies, to study real chemical interactions in real ecological systems,” said Dr. Karbat.



Additionally, the same methodology could be applied to drug development, helping to identify precise targets for new drugs while avoiding unintended interactions.



“If you develop a drug that would activate a channel in the human brain, you wouldn’t want the same drug to affect a channel in the human heart and cause a heart attack,” noted Dr. Karbat.



“The power of this pipeline is that we can concentrate on a target, or any molecule that we are interested in, and find its match,” added Dr. Reuveny, emphasizing the effectiveness of this approach. .



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-ai-s-role-in-molecular-research">Expanding AI’s role in molecular research</h2>



The success of this AI-powered pipeline extends far beyond the study of cone snail toxins. 



The ability to predict molecular interactions accurately could transform the way scientists approach drug discovery, environmental toxicology, and even disease treatment.



One of the most promising applications lies in developing highly specific drugs that target only the intended receptors, thus minimizing side effects. By refining molecular targeting, AI can help create treatments that are both safer and more effective.



Additionally, this approach could be used to study natural toxins other than Cs1, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deadly-snail-venom-possible-key-to-improving-diabetes-medicine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">venom</a> components from other marine creatures, snakes, scorpions or even plants.



Understanding how these compounds interact with biological systems could inspire new medical treatments, from pain relief to antimicrobial drugs.



The research also holds promise for ecological conservation. By mapping how toxins influence different species, scientists can better predict how environmental changes or chemical pollutants may affect ecosystems.



As AI continues to revolutionize molecular biology, tools like AlphaFold and ET3 will likely become standard in many areas of research, bridging the gap between computational predictions and real-world biological interactions.



The work will be presented at the <a href="https://www.biophysics.org/2025meeting/program/">69th Biophysical Society </a>Annual Meeting in Los Angeles.



Image Credit: Courtesy of Eitan Reuveny and Izhar Karbat.



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Cone snail toxin has inspired a breakthrough in drug discovery

Toxins can give valuable insights into how molecules interact with...

Across Kenya, grasslands serve as a crucial lifeline for both local communities and wildlife, from elephants and giraffes to hyenas. However, climate-driven drought is drying out these habitats, forcing animals and people to vie for diminishing resources - and fueling conflict.&nbsp;



Now, new research shows that restoring more grassland significantly reduces clashes and boosts safety for everyone.



“Grassland restoration is playing a role in reducing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-wildlife-overlap-is-rapidly-rising-across-the-globe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human-wildlife conflicts</a>, social conflicts and the overall feeling of insecurity in Chyulu Hills, Kenya,” said study leader Camila Donatti, a scientist at Conservation International.&nbsp;



“Grasslands maintain 60% of the livestock produced in Kenya and support 70% of all the wildlife that is found outside protected areas, so people, livestock, and wildlife rely on those grasslands for their survival and live in close proximity. This means this system is ideal for studying the connections between grassland restoration and peace and security.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-droughts-escalate-competition-for-resources">Droughts escalate competition for resources</h2>



With the climate crisis intensifying, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/droughts-and-extreme-weather-events-are-escalating/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">droughts</a> have grown more severe, reducing vegetation and leaving less food for both livestock and wildlife.&nbsp;



In Chyulu Hills, researchers surveyed 1,567 households and found that 89% faced some form of conflict with wildlife, while 32% experienced social disputes with other residents. The area is predicted to suffer even more pronounced droughts in the next 30 years, further imperiling resources and livelihoods.



“Grasslands prevent soil erosion while supporting agriculture and livestock grazing, which sustain the livelihoods of pastoralists and farmers in Kenya,” explained Maureen Mwanzia, formerly with Conservation International Kenya and now a statistician at the World Health Organization.&nbsp;



“Additionally, they support rich biodiversity. Beyond their ecological functions, grasslands hold cultural significance and offer tourism and recreation opportunities, making their protection and restoration essential for both environmental and human well-being.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-conflicts-in-restored-grasslands-nbsp">Tracking conflicts in restored grasslands&nbsp;</h2>



Beginning in October 2021, 11,000 hectares of grassland in the Chyulu Hills were earmarked for rehabilitation. 



From September 2022 to October 2023, researchers interviewed local households near these restored sites to understand the scale of human-wildlife interactions, such as crop raids and livestock attacks. The team also wanted to document social tensions, like disagreements over land use.



“Of the total households interviewed, 23% had at least one member experiencing non-lethal attacks by wildlife,” Donatti said. “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-elephant-conflict-will-escalate-with-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Elephants</a>, giraffes, lions, spotted hyenas, and buffalos were the most likely species to be involved.”&nbsp;



Conflicts often spiked during the rainy season, when predators sometimes turn to livestock and herbivores stray into ripening fields.



However, the study revealed that households near larger restored grassland areas encountered fewer wildlife conflicts, though overall conflict levels stayed relatively flat across time. Researchers attribute this to the still-limited size of restored grasslands compared with animals’ broad ranges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-restored-grassland-reduces-community-disputes">Restored grassland reduces community disputes</h2>



Besides curbing wildlife clashes, restored grassland appeared to lower social conflicts and a sense of insecurity within local populations. 



Over the study period, people’s perceptions of safety generally improved where more habitat restoration was underway - though women-led households reported more social conflict and uncertainty than male-led households.



“However, we only have 16 months of data,” Donatti cautioned. “Tracking conflicts should continue in the area to understand long-term patterns.”&nbsp;



“Additionally, the information we requested from household members relates to the conflicts and mitigation strategies we have previously identified; other conflicts and strategies may have been happening in the area.”



“Finally, household surveys do not properly capture retaliatory measures on wildlife. These should be assessed using a different methodology.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-of-large-scale-grassland-restoration-nbsp">Potential of large-scale grassland restoration&nbsp;</h2>



Based on these findings, Mwanzia underscored the potential for large-scale grassland restoration to foster both ecological and social benefits.



“I would like to see the integration of grassland restoration into national and international environmental and development strategies, with dedicated funding and resources,” said Mwanzia.&nbsp;



“Policies should address human-wildlife and social conflicts while incorporating gender-sensitive approaches that consider the unique challenges faced by men and women in grassland areas.”



With <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grasslands-are-racing-to-adapt-to-climate-shifts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">droughts</a> intensifying and tensions escalating, the study highlights grassland restoration as a nature-based approach that can defuse conflicts, support livestock, and protect wildlife. 



As other regions face similar climate pressures, Kenya’s experience may offer a guide on how bolstering natural habitats can help sustain communities and preserve <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/changes-in-earths-biodiversity-can-be-tracked-from-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2024.1431316" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Environmental Science</a>.



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Restored grasslands bring more peace to Africa 

Across Kenya, grasslands serve as a crucial lifeline for both...

Coyotes are wily hunters that also scavenge for a catholic array of food. They kill rabbits and other small vertebrates, will take scraps from dustbins, and sometimes munch on backyard fruit. But recent evidence shows they also take an interest in harbor seal pups.



Motion-triggered cameras have captured these wild canines dragging baby seals away from mainland beaches. This discovery has sparked questions about how these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/city-life-has-a-huge-impact-on-coyote-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a> use the shore as part of their menu.



Led by UC Santa Cruz Ph.D. student <a href="https://rclab.ucsc.edu/people/grad-students-postdocs/frankie-gerraty" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frankie Gerraty</a>, the investigation uncovered details of coyote hunting patterns near seal rookeries. 



Working alongside <a href="https://www.noyocenter.org/our-team-staff" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sarah Grimes</a> from the <a href="https://www.noyocenter.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Noyo Center for Marine Science</a>, the team noticed a puzzling pattern of seal-pup carcasses and set out to find out who was to blame.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cameras-reveal-coyotes-hunting-seal-pups">Cameras reveal coyotes hunting seal pups</h2>



<a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ecy.70031" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers</a> set up cameras on a stretch of sand where harbor seals give birth. Footage revealed coyotes seizing newborn pups and carting them off into the dune vegetation.



“I had a hunch it was coyotes,” said Gerraty. “Terrestrial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coyotes-live-longer-in-densely-populated-human-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a> that eat seafood are a major focus of mine, and we know that coyotes are very adaptable.”



The team found that coyotes often returned to the same hiding spots with their prey. Investigators also discovered remains that showed a consistent pattern in the way these canines fed, pointing to more than simple random scavenging.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coyotes-hunt-seal-pups-for-seasonal-food">Coyotes hunt seal pups for seasonal food</h2>



“There was consistency, they weren't scattered here and there,” said Gerraty. The pups are born seasonally, so coyotes can hunt them when other typical prey might be less abundant.



Fatty foods are enticing for many species. For <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hunting-coyotes-may-be-fueling-their-population-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coyotes</a>, a blubbery pup provides a calorie-packed option in spring.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Coyote-hunting-and-killing-a-harbor-seal-pup-in-Bolinas-Lagoon-on-July-4-2022_credit-Clint-Graves_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Coyote-hunting-and-killing-a-harbor-seal-pup-in-Bolinas-Lagoon-on-July-4-2022_credit-Clint-Graves_1s.webp" alt="Coyote hunting and killing a harbor seal pup in Bolinas Lagoon on July 4, 2022 (Observation #40). A single coyote (A) was observed ambushing a group of hauled‐out adult harbor seals and pups (B) and killing a harbor seal pup (C, D). Seals flushed into the water to avoid coyote predation (E). Photo credit: Clint Graves." class="wp-image-1960174"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Coyote hunting and killing a harbor seal pup in Bolinas Lagoon on July 4, 2022 (Observation #40). A single coyote (A) was observed ambushing a group of hauled‐out adult harbor seals and pups (B) and killing a harbor seal pup (C, D). Seals flushed into the water to avoid coyote predation (E). Photo credit: Clint Graves.</figcaption></figure>



The study observed that vultures, ravens, and eagles also fed on leftover carcasses. This suggests that predators and scavengers alike see newborn seals as a valuable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-coyotes-have-developed-a-taste-for-human-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food source</a> at certain times of year.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-questions-about-rookeries">New questions about rookeries</h2>



A <a href="https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/rookery" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rookery</a> is a breeding ground where seals gather to give birth. These areas may attract opportunistic land predators, like coyotes, because pups are vulnerable when resting onshore.



Coyotes are known to explore beaches for stranded fish and bird eggs, but recorded instances of hunting seals are limited.



This project captured some of the most detailed accounts of coyotes stalking and killing seal pups in California. Scientists have started to wonder if more rookeries might show similar patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-history-of-predator-absence">History of predator absence</h2>



Historically, wolves and <a href="https://tarpits.org/california-grizzly-bear" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">grizzlies</a> were the main large land predators in many parts of California. With those animals gone from most coastal areas, seals have expanded their rookeries onto mainland beaches.



<a href="https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/nature/coyote.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Coyotes</a> have filled that void as they spread throughout the state over the past century. They weigh about 20 to 50 pounds (9 to 23 kilograms) in some regions, which makes a harbor seal pup a manageable but significant prey item.



In past centuries, seals may have kept their pups on remote islands to avoid the attention of bigger predators. 



Now, researchers are seeing a shift where some seals return to rocky outcrops farther from shore, presumably to decrease the chance of coyote encounters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-perceptions">Balancing perceptions</h2>



Some people see coyotes as a nuisance or threat. Others admire their resilience and willingness to adapt.



“Coyotes have a PR problem,” noted Gerraty. He does not want this research to stir more anger toward the species, since this is natural behavior between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hunting-coyotes-actually-boosts-their-numbers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">native animals</a>.



Still, it is jarring for onlookers to find baby seals missing or discovered partially eaten in the dunes. The study raises questions about how often this happens and whether seals will change rookery spots to protect their young.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ripple-effects-in-the-ecosystem">Ripple effects in the ecosystem</h2>



Pinnipeds are a group of marine mammals that includes seals and sea lions, and they carry a lot of fat. If coyotes gain enough energy from hunting pups, they might multiply faster or shift their ranges nearer to rookery sites.



Researchers want to learn whether this interaction influences how coyotes behave elsewhere. For example, if pups are an easy meal in spring, coyotes might focus on farmland or suburban edges at other times.



Harbor seals may start choosing haul-out sites that offer more protection from land predators. These shifts could impact local beaches, tourism, and conservation efforts focused on both seals and coyotes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-have-coyotes-always-hunted-seal-pups">Have coyotes always hunted seal pups?</h2>



Reports from nearby counties hint that coyotes have hunted seal pups at Drakes Estero and Bolinas Lagoon. Wildlife observers in <a href="https://www.sealifer3.org/news/elephant-seal-pup-treated-after-likely-coyote-attack" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington state</a> and Massachusetts have also recorded similar predation events.



Scientists say land-based predators hunting marine mammals is <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352550924000642" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">not new</a>, but thorough research on it has been missing for a long time. 



This study is unique because it shows how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coyotes-can-make-puppy-dog-eyes-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coyotes</a> may regularly return for blubber-rich meals, especially when pups are small.



The authors suggest that more data on coyote abundance, behavior, and health in coastal zones could help conservationists manage human–wildlife conflicts. 



By shedding light on this predator–prey link, biologists can better track coastal ecosystems and anticipate future shifts in animal populations.



The study is published in <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ecy.70031" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology</a>.



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Photos capture coyotes hunting and eating baby seals for the first time

Coyotes are wily hunters that also scavenge for a catholic...

A recent study has found that reintroducing wolves to the Scottish Highlands could contribute to an expansion of native woodland that would sequester up to one million tons of CO2 annually.



Experts from the <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leeds</a> used ecological and modeling techniques to estimate how wolf predation on red deer might allow depleted forests to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-are-rebuilding-forests-and-restoring-ecosystem-balance-in-yellowstone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">recover</a>. 



By reducing the deer population, the researchers project that new tree growth would flourish, resulting in substantial carbon sequestration.



In their study, the experts have detailed a potential path toward balancing biodiversity restoration with climate mitigation goals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modeling-the-impact-of-wolves">Modeling the impact of wolves</h2>



The red <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-climate-change-affect-deer-its-complicated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deer</a> population in Scotland has grown considerably in the absence of top predators. As deer graze heavily on saplings, many once-forested areas remain treeless, inhibiting the region’s long-term ecological health.&nbsp;



The research team used a predator–prey model to simulate how wolves could control deer numbers if reintroduced to specific regions classified as Scottish Wild Land, including areas in the Cairngorms, South-west Highlands, Central Highlands, and North-west Highlands.



From their simulations, the scientists concluded that a population of around 167 wolves spread across these regions would likely reduce deer densities enough to enable natural woodland regeneration on a large scale.&nbsp;



This vegetation recovery, they estimate, would annually sequester roughly one million tons of CO2 - equivalent to about 5% of the <a href="https://www.theccc.org.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UK Climate Change Committee</a>’s recommended woodland carbon removal target for meeting net-zero emissions by 2050.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-climate-benefits-of-wolves">Potential climate benefits of wolves</h2>



One of the study’s most notable findings is that each wolf would lead to an annual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-carbon-sinks-are-being-pushed-to-their-limits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon</a> uptake capability of 6080 tonnes of CO2, effectively making each predator “worth” £154,000 based on current carbon valuation metrics.&nbsp;



Researchers see these results as further proof that large carnivores can provide significant ecosystem services by restoring natural processes.



Wolves were eradicated from Scotland approximately 250 years ago, leaving red deer without any natural predators. While humans do hunt and manage deer, numbers have still surged, hampering tree regrowth.&nbsp;



According to the study, substantial reforestation could now be achievable through ecological processes alone - if wolves were allowed to return and perform their predator role in the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-step-toward-climate-ready-conservation">A step toward climate-ready conservation</h2>



“There is an increasing acknowledgement that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-climate-change-and-biodiversity-loss-are-one-indivisible-global-health-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate and biodiversity crises</a> cannot be managed in isolation,” said lead author Dominick Spracklen, a professor at the University of Leeds’ School of Earth and Environment.



“We need to look at the potential role of natural processes such as the reintroduction of species to recover our degraded ecosystems and these in turn can deliver co-benefits for climate and nature recovery.”&nbsp;



Diminished native woodlands pose ecological and economic risks. The study makes it clear that a wolf reintroduction initiative could turn this around, providing new habitat for other species.



Wolves could also reduce deer-related issues (such as road collisions and damage to young trees), and even create potential ecotourism opportunities - as observed in other countries that have reintroduced large predators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-weighing-the-risks-and-benefits">Weighing the risks and benefits</h2>



The researchers acknowledge that reintroducing wolves would be controversial, especially among livestock farmers and deer stalkers concerned about their livelihoods.&nbsp;



Advocates argue that the economic value of improved carbon sequestration (along with reduced deer cull costs and new ecotourism revenues) could offset some of these concerns.



They also stress that any move toward wolf reintroduction would require extensive stakeholder engagement, transparent decision-making, and well-thought-out management plans to mitigate human-wildlife conflicts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-based-solutions-and-climate-benefits">Nature-based solutions and climate benefits </h2>



From a broader perspective, the findings add to a growing body of literature suggesting that nature-based solutions - in this case, leveraging a predator’s ecological role - can deliver meaningful climate benefits.&nbsp;



By harnessing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/danger-zones-climate-change-is-altering-predator-prey-dynamics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predator-prey dynamic</a> to spur woodland recovery, Scotland could see a substantial boost in carbon storage capacity and ecological resilience.



Still, the exact outcome of wolf reintroduction would depend on public support, regulatory frameworks, and the practicalities of managing a newly returned apex predator.&nbsp;



As discussions evolve, the team’s data provide a baseline for measuring potential gains in both conservation and carbon uptake.



In line with these insights, the study offers a new vantage point on how large carnivore restoration might affect the UK’s broader climate and biodiversity goals.&nbsp;



If pursued, the reintroduction of wolves could shape not just local landscapes but also the national conversation on how best to unite climate action with wildlife recovery.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/2688-8319.70016" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecological Solutions and Evidence</a>.



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Reintroducing wolves could help Scotland fight climate change 

A recent study has found that reintroducing wolves to the...

For years, scientists and ocean lovers alike have marveled at the unique relationship between clownfish and sea anemones. 



The small, brightly colored fish seem to move fearlessly among the stinging tentacles of their hosts, completely unharmed. Their ability to thrive in this seemingly dangerous environment has fascinated researchers for over a century.



Sea anemones use specialized cells called nematocysts to deliver powerful stings to unsuspecting prey and predators. These stings can be deadly to most marine creatures, yet clownfish remain untouched. 



How do these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clownfish-count-stripes-on-other-fish-to-defend-their-territory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> avoid being stung? What makes them immune to a defense mechanism designed to kill? Scientists have now uncovered the secret behind this remarkable adaptation, revealing an intricate and finely tuned biological process.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-protective-layer-in-clownfish-mucus">A protective layer in clownfish mucus</h2>



Researchers from the Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology (OIST) and international collaborators made a remarkable discovery. 



The team found that clownfish produce mucus with exceptionally low levels of sialic acid. This sugar molecule, present in most living organisms, plays a crucial role in cellular communication. However, it also serves as a trigger for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/anemonefish-can-distinguish-between-anemone-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anemone</a> stings.



Interestingly, sea anemones themselves also lack sialic acid in their mucus. This suggests they may have evolved this trait to avoid stinging their own tentacles. By maintaining similarly low levels of this sugar compound, clownfish are essentially "invisible" to the anemone’s stinging cells. 



The study, published in BMC Biology, provides strong evidence that clownfish have evolved a defense strategy that mimics their hosts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clownfish-anemone-relationship">Clownfish-anemone relationship</h2>



To explore this adaptation, the researchers examined both clownfish and damselfish - a close relative that does not live with anemones.



The team used glycobiology, which focuses on the study of sugars, along with transcriptomics, which analyzes the expression of genes through RNA. 



By measuring mucus samples, the experts were able to identify key differences in composition between the two fish species.



Using liquid chromatography, an advanced technique for separating and analyzing complex mixtures, they found that clownfish have significantly lower levels of sialic acid in their mucus compared to damselfish. 



While clownfish still retain sialic acid in vital organs like the brain and gut, their skin mucus remains nearly free of this compound. This prevents them from activating the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-anemones-can-regrow-their-entire-body-in-its-original-shape/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anemone</a>’s stinging response, allowing them to move freely among the tentacles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-young-clownfish-get-stung-until-they-adapt">Young clownfish get stung until they adapt</h2>



Anemonefish are not born with this special adaptation. The researchers discovered that juvenile clownfish, which have not yet established a relationship with anemones, possess normal levels of sialic acid. If they attempt to enter an anemone’s tentacles at this stage, they get stung just like any other fish.



As they grow and develop their signature bright orange and white coloration, their mucus chemistry changes. Their sialic acid levels gradually decrease, allowing them to safely integrate into anemone colonies. This transition marks a crucial stage in their survival, ensuring they receive the protection anemones offer against predators.



A similar pattern was found in the domino damselfish. As juveniles, these fish can temporarily live among anemones, and researchers discovered that their mucus also exhibits reduced sialic acid levels during this stage. This suggests that multiple fish species have independently evolved similar biological adaptations to coexist with anemones.



“Our findings represent a major advancement because it's one of the first studies to combine glycobiology with transcriptomic analysis to investigate this mechanism,” explained Dr. Natacha Roux of CRIOBE, a former researcher at OIST’s <a href="https://www.oist.jp/research/research-units/cne" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Computational Neuroethology Unit</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-can-bacteria-help-clownfish-avoid-stings">Can bacteria help clownfish avoid stings?</h2>



While the absence of sialic acid in clownfish mucus explains much of their immunity, researchers are now investigating whether bacteria also play a role in this process. They have two main theories.



The first theory suggests that clownfish produce enzymes that actively remove sialic acid from their mucus. The second hypothesis points to bacteria in their microbiome that could help break down these sugars.



Previous studies show that when clownfish and sea anemones live together, their bacterial communities become increasingly similar over time. This supports the idea that bacteria may influence the fish’s ability to resist stings. If true, this would add another layer of complexity to the already intricate clownfish-anemone relationship.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clownfish-and-anemones-help-each-other-survive">Clownfish and anemones help each other survive</h2>



The symbiotic bond between clownfish and anemones is not just about avoiding stings. Both species benefit from their association in multiple ways. 



Clownfish gain a safe habitat, protected from larger predators that avoid anemone tentacles. In return, the fish defend their hosts from anemone-eating species and provide nutrients by stirring up the surrounding water.



Professor Vincent Laudet, head of OIST’s <a href="https://www.oist.jp/research/research-units/meedu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Eco-Evo-Devo Unit</a>, emphasized the complexity of this relationship. 



“Other factors might include the thickness of fish scales, the exchange of nutrients between species, and possible adjustments by the anemones themselves," said Professor Laudet.



"The relationship is mutually beneficial, with anemonefish receiving protection from predators while helping to defend the anemone and providing nutritional benefits."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenge-of-proving-this-hypothesis">Challenge of proving this hypothesis</h2>



While the research strongly supports the idea that low sialic acid levels help clownfish evade <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-anemones-use-their-shyness-survive-heatwaves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anemone</a> stings, scientists want to confirm this by manipulating the process directly. 



If they can artificially raise sialic acid levels in clownfish mucus and make them vulnerable to stings, or reduce the levels in damselfish to make them resistant, it would serve as definitive proof. However, this is easier said than done.



The process of altering mucus composition in live fish is complex, requiring precise genetic and biochemical interventions. For now, scientists continue to explore ways to test their findings in controlled environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-milestone-in-marine-research">A milestone in marine research</h2>



This discovery represents more than just a scientific breakthrough; it also marks the first major research paper from a new collaboration between France’s National Centre for Scientific Research (<a href="https://www.cnrs.fr/en/the-cnrs" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CNRS</a>) and OIST. 



The work provides new insights into one of nature’s most fascinating partnerships and could open the door to further studies on marine symbiosis.



For now, the clownfish remains a symbol of the ocean’s hidden wonders, demonstrating how nature continuously shapes life through adaptation and survival. As research continues, scientists may uncover even more about the secrets behind this remarkable fish and its unusual way of life.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://bmcbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12915-025-02144-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BMC Biology</a>.



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Clownfish have evolved a neat trick to live safely among stinging anemones

For years, scientists and ocean lovers alike have marveled at...

Deep below the ocean’s surface, underwater mountains rise from the seafloor, creating landscapes few have explored. These seamounts, often teeming with life, stand in stark contrast to the vast, open ocean surrounding them. 



New research has revealed that these hidden peaks hold far more predators than the open sea, drawing large numbers of sharks and other marine hunters.



A study led by the University of Exeter and the Ascension Island Government found that seamounts in the South Atlantic Ocean support astonishing levels of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/axial-seamount-large-underwater-volcano-off-us-coast-will-likely-erupt-in-2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine life</a>. 



The research focused on three seamounts near Ascension Island, uncovering why these locations serve as prime gathering spots for predators. 



Scientists discovered that shallow seamounts, with peaks less than 100 meters below the surface, were particularly rich in marine life, including sharks and tuna.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-do-seamounts-attract-predators">Why do seamounts attract predators?</h2>



Scientists have long suspected that seamounts act as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alien-like-marine-life-found-on-underwater-mountains-includes-100-new-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hubs for marine life</a>. Some of these underwater mountains create nutrient-rich upwellings that boost phytoplankton growth, which forms the foundation of ocean food chains.



 However, this new study found no evidence of such upwellings at the seamounts near Ascension Island. Instead, the researchers observed a different pattern. Marine life increased at every level of the food web, even without a surge in phytoplankton.



Zooplankton, which consume phytoplankton, were twice as abundant near the seamounts as in the open ocean. Sharks, at the top of the food chain, were 41 times more numerous than in surrounding waters.



“Seamounts have been likened to oases of life in the comparative deserts of the open ocean,” said Dr. Sam Weber from the <a href="https://ecologyconservation.exeter.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Centre for Ecology and Conservation</a> at Exeter’s Penryn Campus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-seamounts-attract-predators">Why seamounts attract predators </h2>



Several factors explain why seamounts attract so many predators. The underwater peaks interrupt ocean currents, pushing smaller organisms into concentrated areas. This creates an easy feeding ground for fish, which, in turn, draws larger predators.



Dr. Weber and his team suggest that filter-feeding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seamounts-underwater-mountains-impact-ocean-circulation-climate-surprising-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> benefit from food being swept over the seamount peaks, making prey easier to catch.



The peaks may also prevent prey from escaping into deeper waters, effectively trapping them in a confined space. This allows predators to hunt with greater success, making these locations an efficient source of food.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seamounts-are-social-hubs">Seamounts are social hubs </h2>



Beyond hunting opportunities, seamounts appear to serve another function. Researchers found that some predators use these underwater mountains as social meeting points. 



Sharks and other species may gather to interact, mate, or rest before returning to the open ocean.



“Also, some predators appear to use seamounts as ‘hubs’ to gather, socialise, mate or rest, and as a base to return to after hunting in the open ocean. This may lead to more top predators on seamounts than you would expect based on the amount of food available,” Dr. Weber explained.



The findings suggest that seamounts are more than just feeding zones. They may be essential gathering sites for marine predators, helping them interact and maintain social structures within their populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-species-found-at-seamounts">Species found at seamounts</h2>



The experts found that certain species consistently gather at seamounts. Among them are Galapagos and silky sharks, along with yellowfin and bigeye tuna.



Some individuals remained at a single seamount for long periods, while others traveled between seamounts up to 80 kilometers apart.



The researchers also noted a “halo” effect around the seamounts, where marine life remained abundant up to five kilometers into the surrounding ocean. This suggests that the influence of seamounts extends beyond their immediate area, affecting a much larger ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-for-seamount-ecosystems">Conservation for seamount ecosystems</h2>



The seamounts included in the study fall within the <a href="https://www.ascensionmpa.ac" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ascension Island Marine Protected Area</a>. This vast 445,000 square kilometer zone is free from large-scale commercial fishing and seabed mining, ensuring that marine life can thrive without human interference.



“Our results reinforce the conservation significance of shallow seamounts for many top predators,” Dr. Weber said.



“This research also offers fundamental insights into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-oceans-are-rapidly-changing-colors-matching-climate-predictions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seamounts</a>’ role as activity hubs and oases for marine species and shows how these remarkable habitats influence the oceans that surround them.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-deeper-understanding-of-seamounts">A deeper understanding of seamounts</h2>



Despite their importance, seamounts remain one of the least studied ecosystems in the ocean. This research sheds light on the critical role they play in supporting marine predators and influencing broader oceanic food webs. 



Understanding these underwater structures is essential for ocean conservation, as protecting seamounts could help maintain predator populations and overall marine biodiversity.



The study gathered data from a National Geographic Pristine Seas expedition aboard the British Antarctic Survey research vessel <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/polar-operations/sites-and-facilities/facility/rrs-james-clark-ross/rrs-james-clark-ross-computing-facilities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">RRS James Clark Ross</a>. Funding came from a European Union BEST grant and the UK government’s <a href="https://www.darwininitiative.org.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Darwin Initiative</a>. 



As scientists continue to explore these hidden underwater worlds, seamounts may reveal even more secrets about the complex relationships that shape life in the ocean.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3003016" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Biology</a>.



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Seamounts are gathering hubs for ocean predators

Deep below the ocean’s surface, underwater mountains rise from the...

When people hear "Chernobyl," they often think of the 1986 nuclear disaster that led to mass evacuations. Yet, the region remains home to diverse wildlife, including dogs that have become a focus of genetic research.



In 2018, researchers collected blood samples from eight canines in Ukraine’s Chernobyl Exclusion Zone - four near the power plant and four in Chornobyl city, roughly 10 miles away. Preliminary findings sparked questions about how environmental toxins might shape these animals over time.



Dr. Matthew Breen is a professor in the Department of Molecular Biomedical Sciences at the <a href="https://cvm.ncsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NCSU College of Veterinary Medicine</a>. He played a central role in analyzing the animals’ DNA. 



The findings revealed a notable genetic split between the dogs, despite their close proximity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-differences-in-chernobyl-dogs">Differences in Chernobyl dogs</h2>



A team from <a href="https://www.publichealth.columbia.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Carolina State University</a> and <a href="https://www.publichealth.columbia.edu/">Columbia University</a> Mailman School of Public Health discovered that the canines near the power plant were genetically distinct from those in the nearby city. 



The results challenge the assumption that animals living so close together would share similar genetic profiles.



“We have been working with two dog populations that, while separated by just 16 kilometers, or about 10 miles, are genetically distinct,” explained Dr. Matthew Breen. 



The genetic differences raise new questions about how decades of exposure to unique contaminants can shape survival strategies.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-back-at-chernobyl-s-legacy">Looking back at Chernobyl's legacy</h2>



The meltdown at the plant is considered one of history’s worst nuclear power accidents. According to the International Atomic Energy Agency, significant levels of radioactive material from the compromised nuclear plant spread across much of Eastern Europe.



Residents were evacuated, and many areas remain off-limits due to lingering contamination. Despite these challenges, animals continued to roam the area, forming populations that today provide unique insights into long-term genetic outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dog-exposure-to-chernobyl-contaminants">Dog exposure to Chernobyl contaminants </h2>



The Chernobyl Exclusion Zone is an area where lingering radioactive contaminants and heavy metals may pose long-term challenges for local species. 



Scientists suspect that ongoing contact with these hazards could leave detectable marks in a population’s <a href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Genome" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genome</a>, which is the complete set of genetic instructions in each cell.



Study co-senior author Norman Kleiman is a professor of environmental health sciences at Columbia Mailman.



“Most people think of the Chernobyl nuclear accident as a radiological disaster in an abandoned corner of Ukraine, but the potential adverse health implications are much wider,” said Kleiman.



It is likely that other pollutants, including lead and pesticides, also influence the dogs’ genetic composition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-radiation-exposure-and-genetic-changes">Radiation exposure and genetic changes</h2>



By sifting through DNA at the chromosomal level and moving down to individual nucleotides, the researchers looked for signs of accumulated damage. They focused on sections tied to repairing DNA, since that is where potentially harmful mutations might show up.



Low-level exposure to radiation over many generations could create subtle changes that become evident in how genes function. Early results did not reveal obvious <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-surprising-mutations-in-sars-cov-2-virus/">mutations</a> that could be traced directly to this radiation.



The team considered that only the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chernobyl-wolves-have-evolved-resistance-to-cancer/">hardiest dogs</a> may have reproduced successfully in the difficult environment of Chernobyl following the 1986 accident. Researchers are investigating whether these survivors already carried traits that shielded them from ongoing threats.



Such inherited advantages might have given future litters a better shot at coping with residual waste and radioactive particles. Experts note that selective pressures can rapidly refine a population’s genetic framework under harsh circumstances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



The lessons from these dogs could be applied to human communities from around the world that confront toxic exposures. If certain genetic signatures indicate enhanced resilience, related research may illuminate how people respond to contaminants in their own neighborhoods.



“Studying companion animals like these dogs offers a window into the kinds of adverse health risks that people may face,” said Kleiman. In regions where industrial pollution remains high, the health implications could be far-reaching.



Scientists plan to measure other forms of pollution in the area to see if there are interactions that mask or enhance certain gene variants. Work continues as the region remains politically unstable, adding logistical hurdles to ongoing projects.



Nevertheless, researchers hope that ongoing data collection will further clarify how diverse environmental factors shape living organisms across the generations. 



Megan Dillon, a doctoral candidate at NC State, believes that uncovering these patterns will help in designing strategies to protect animals and people in future disaster zones.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0315244" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLoS ONE</a>.



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Chernobyl dogs carry unexpected genetic characteristics

When people hear "Chernobyl," they often think of the 1986...

For six decades, marine biologists at UC Santa Cruz have closely monitored northern elephant seals that make their way to Año Nuevo Natural Reserve.&nbsp;



With thousands of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephant-seals-have-genetic-scars-from-intense-hunting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seals</a> gathering on the beach for breeding and molting, researchers have been able to collect over 350,000 individual observations on more than 50,000 animals.&nbsp;



This long-term study has provided invaluable insights into the fitness, foraging patterns, and population dynamics of these massive marine mammals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seals-as-smart-sensors">Seals as smart sensors </h2>



Now, a new study suggests that elephant seals can serve as “smart sensors” for monitoring fish populations in the ocean’s twilight zone - the deep, dimly lit layer between 200 and 1,000 meters below the surface.&nbsp;



The research was led by Roxanne Beltran, assistant professor of ecology and evolutionary biology at <a href="https://www.ucsc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Santa Cruz</a>.



The study demonstrates how tracking the seals’ foraging success can offer a novel way to estimate fish abundance across vast ocean regions, a task that conventional monitoring tools have struggled to accomplish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-elephant-seals-in-the-twilight-zone">Elephant seals in the twilight zone</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceans-twilight-zone-stabilizes-the-marine-food-chain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">twilight zone</a> is a critical region in the ocean, containing the majority of the planet’s fish biomass. However, studying it presents significant challenges. Ships and buoys can only sample limited areas, while satellites cannot penetrate below the ocean’s surface.&nbsp;



Because the twilight zone is where elephant seals hunt for food, their movements provide a previously impossible method to assess fish populations on a large scale.



“Given the importance of the ocean for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-ocean-holds-carbon-hidden-mechanisms-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon sequestration</a>, climate regulation, oxygen production, and food for billions of people, there is an urgent need to measure changes in marine ecosystems,” Beltran said.&nbsp;



“Our research shows that the vast foraging extent and millions of feeding attempts by elephant seals make them a fantastic ecosystem sentinel, both for fish populations and top predators in the open ocean.”



Each elephant seal makes approximately 75,000 foraging dives over a seven-month period, covering nearly 6,000 miles across the Pacific Ocean.&nbsp;



The researchers estimate that tracking just 14 seals per year could provide fish abundance data across an astonishing 4.4 million cubic kilometers of ocean volume.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seal-foraging-success-and-oceanic-changes">Seal foraging success and oceanic changes</h2>



Beyond simply tracking where seals search for food, weighing them before and after their foraging migrations provides crucial information about prey availability. This offers a long-term record of fluctuations in fish populations, which is particularly important as commercial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bleaching-effect-coral-loss-threatens-fisheries-and-livelihoods/">fisheries</a> push into deeper waters in search of new protein sources.&nbsp;



Sustainable management of these fisheries requires reliable assessments of fish stocks and their responses to environmental changes.



Beltran and her colleagues integrated data from decades of elephant seal research to analyze how their foraging success correlates with oceanographic conditions.&nbsp;



The findings suggest that changes in seal pup survival rates over the past 40 years are tightly linked to variations in the ocean environment, reinforcing the seals’ role as natural indicators of ecosystem health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decades-of-data-on-elephant-seals">Decades of data on elephant seals</h2>



In addition to its scientific implications, the study highlights the importance of hands-on research training for students. The paper includes 14 undergraduate co-authors, all of whom participated in a field-based course led by Beltran and <a href="https://anonuevoreserve.ucsc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Año Nuevo Natural Reserve</a> Director Patrick Robinson.&nbsp;



Through this immersive program, students analyzed six decades of data, developed scientific questions, and contributed directly to the study’s findings.



“We want the students to feel like they are part of a community of scientists,” said Allison Payne, a graduate student in the Beltran Lab who served as the course’s teaching assistant.&nbsp;



“It’s an incredible opportunity for the students and instructors alike to collaborate on real-world science, and it builds students’ confidence in navigating the scientific process.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biological-oceanographic-research">Biological oceanographic research </h2>



One of the undergraduate co-authors, Madi Reed, examined how oceanographic conditions influence seal pup survival. She found dramatic fluctuations in elephant seal reproductive success that strongly correlated with changing ocean conditions.&nbsp;



“It was really exciting to directly experience how the concepts we learned in our classes could be applied to real research,” Reed said. “This discovery has hugely inspired my current drive to pursue a career in biological oceanographic research.”



Beltran’s lab has also published a related perspective in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.14482" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology Letters</a>, discussing the importance of long-term studies in providing inclusive research opportunities for students.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seals-and-twilight-zone-conservation">Seals and twilight zone conservation</h2>



The twilight zone plays a crucial role in marine food webs, serving as an essential feeding ground for economically valuable species like tuna and squid.&nbsp;



However, scientific estimates of twilight-zone fish populations remain highly uncertain, with a 10-fold range of possible values. This uncertainty presents a major challenge for fisheries management, especially as discussions about commercially harvesting twilight-zone fish gain momentum.



The new study, which builds on decades of research led by Burney LeBoeuf and Dan Costa, helps bridge this gap by linking elephant seal foraging success to broader oceanographic trends.&nbsp;



“This effort documented the coupling between the elephant seals' behavior thousands of miles at sea, to their breeding success on the beach,” said Costa, a distinguished professor of ecology and evolutionary biology.&nbsp;



“This could only be accomplished with a long-time series coupled with a multidisciplinary team, including oceanographers, demographers, modelers, and seal biologists.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-the-ocean-s-pulse">Measuring the ocean's pulse</h2>



Past studies from this long-term research program revealed several groundbreaking discoveries, including the long-distance foraging migrations of elephant seals, the sheer volume of their feeding attempts, and the connection between maternal foraging success and pup health.



Now, the latest findings demonstrate that elephant seal foraging success aligns closely with broad-scale oceanographic indices that can be monitored by satellites.&nbsp;



“This linkage allowed us to measure the ocean's pulse and estimate fluctuations in fish availability five decades into the past and a few years into the future,” Beltran explained.



By providing a critical ecological baseline, this research can help inform sustainable fishing policies and assess the impacts of climate change on deep-sea fish populations.&nbsp;



With growing concerns about human-driven environmental changes, long-term studies like this one are becoming increasingly essential for understanding and protecting the ocean’s vast, yet largely unexplored, ecosystems.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.adp2244" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Elephant seals provide a window into the ocean’s twilight zone

For six decades, marine biologists at UC Santa Cruz have...

Cities are often seen as places where nature takes a backseat to concrete and steel. Yet, many animals have adapted to urban environments, changing their behaviors and survival strategies. 



A new study from Tel Aviv University has uncovered a surprising effect of city life on bats - urban-dwelling bats give birth significantly earlier than those in rural areas.



This research is the first of its kind to establish a link between urban environments and the timing of birth in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-surf-the-winds-of-storms-during-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammals</a>. 



The findings suggest that factors such as warmer temperatures and an abundance of food influence when bats reproduce. These discoveries could have broader implications for understanding how other species are adapting to human-made landscapes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birth-patterns-in-bats">Birth patterns in bats</h2>



The research team, led by Professor Yossi Yovel from <a href="https://english.tau.ac.il" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tel Aviv University</a>’s School of Zoology and the Steinhardt Museum of Natural History, spent three years observing ten bat colonies in both urban and rural settings. 



The study, published in BMC Biology, involved collecting data from hundreds of female <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/we-can-prevent-future-pandemics-by-protecting-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bats</a> and approximately 120 pups.



By measuring the forearm length and body weight of newborn bats, the researchers determined that urban pups were, on average, 2.5 weeks more developed than their rural counterparts. 



This difference highlights the significant role that city environments play in shaping bat reproduction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advantages-of-urban-bats">Advantages of urban bats</h2>



Urban areas create microclimates that differ from surrounding rural landscapes. One of the most noticeable effects is the “urban heat island” phenomenon, where cities retain more heat than rural areas. This artificial warmth provides a more stable environment for bats, especially during colder months.



"Fruit bats living in cities benefit from favorable environmental conditions, including higher temperatures due to the 'urban heat island' effect and greater food availability, primarily from ornamental fruit trees irrigated year-round," explained Professor Yovel.



"These conditions allow urban <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bat-conservation-benefits-human-health-and-the-environment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bats</a> to cope better with harsh winters and start their reproductive cycles earlier. This enables females to give birth earlier in the season, increasing their chances of becoming pregnant again within the same year."



The availability of food also plays a crucial role. In cities, ornamental fruit trees provide a consistent supply of food, while rural bats must rely on seasonal availability. This steady diet may allow urban bats to maintain better overall health, supporting more frequent and earlier reproduction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pregnancy-duration-of-urban-bats">Pregnancy duration of urban bats</h2>



One of the most interesting findings of the study is the uncertainty about why urban bats give birth earlier. Researchers are unsure whether these bats are shortening their pregnancies or if they are simply conceiving earlier than rural bats. 



Some bat species are known to adjust their pregnancy duration based on environmental conditions, such as temperature and food availability. However, scientists have not yet confirmed whether this is happening in the bats they studied.



The study’s authors emphasize the need for further research to understand this reproductive shift. If urban bats are shortening their pregnancies, it could indicate that city environments are influencing fetal development. 



On the other hand, if they are becoming pregnant earlier, it suggests that the conditions in cities encourage quicker mating cycles. Answering this question could provide important insights into how mammals adapt to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-bats-navigate-noisy-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urbanization</a> and changing ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-research">Broader implications of the research </h2>



The research raises new questions about how urbanization affects reproduction in mammals beyond bats. Many species now live in or near cities, facing altered food sources, climates, and survival pressures. 



Studying these changes can help conservationists predict which species may struggle to adapt and which may thrive.



"This study highlights the importance of understanding the connection between animals and their environments, especially in an era when urbanization is reshaping the planet," concluded Professor Yovel.



As human expansion continues, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-bats-can-remember-the-past-and-plan-for-the-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a> must constantly adapt. A growing collection of research provides valuable insights into how species respond to city life, shaping future conservation efforts and our understanding of urban ecology.



The relationship between animals and human environments is still unfolding, but studies like this offers a glimpse into how species are navigating a rapidly changing world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://bmcbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12915-025-02124-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BMC Biology</a>.



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Urban bats are having babies earlier than their country cousins

Cities are often seen as places where nature takes a...

Many people want a dog that offers unwavering affection. Some breeds shower owners with constant warmth and loyalty.



<a href="https://www.ubc.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanley Coren</a>, a psychologist from the <a href="https://www.ubc.ca/">University of British Columbia</a>, wrote about breed temperament differences in <a href="https://books.google.com/books/about/The_Intelligence_of_Dogs.html?id=sbL3OjnOemAC" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Intelligence of Dogs</a>. 



His observations show how dogs from certain breeds crave physical closeness more than others. Here’s a list of the top ten most affectionate dogs, as derived from his research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-1-labrador-retriever">1) Labrador retriever</h2>



Labradors are often praised for staying loyal and friendly. They fit in well with busy families and also keep calm when given proper exercise.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/labrador-retriever.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1959654"/></figure>



They usually greet guests with wagging tails, which reveals their easygoing nature. Many consider them one of the most popular companions because they balance energy with a desire to cuddle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-2-golden-retriever">2) Golden retriever</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/golden-retrievers-and-all-dog-breeds-will-live-longer-lives-thanks-to-science/">Golden retrievers</a> are known for their eager-to-please attitudes. Their soft coats make cozy snuggle sessions even more appealing.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/golden-retriever.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1959655"/></figure>



They show affection to household members and visiting friends alike. This openness makes them a solid choice for family homes that are looking for a loving dog.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-3-cavalier-king-charles-spaniel">3) Cavalier King Charles spaniel</h2>



Cavalier King Charles spaniels often stay close to those they adore. Their gentle natures help them blend into most living situations.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/cavalier-king-charles-spaniel.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1959656"/></figure>



They typically greet their favorite humans with continuous tail wagging and soulful gazes. This breed thrives on spending time in laps and never gets tired of gentle pats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-4-shih-tzu">4) Shih tzu</h2>



Shih tzus were prized in ancient China for their lap-warming qualities. They still relish staying near their people, whether relaxing at home or enjoying small bursts of play.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/shih-tzuu.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1959658"/></figure>



They adapt well to indoor life and often enjoy perching contentedly on couches. Comfort and closeness rank high on their list of daily must-haves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-5-pug">5) Pug</h2>



Pugs, sometimes referred to as velcro <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-are-evolving-to-fit-the-modern-lives-of-humans/">dogs</a>, love sticking to owners. They tend to nap wherever you are and often snore softly when resting.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/pug.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1959659"/></figure>



They show affection by pawing for attention or nestling into blankets. A pug’s expressive face and easygoing attitude make it a hit among those wanting a relaxed companion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-6-newfoundland">6) Newfoundland</h2>



Newfoundlands may appear huge, but they are famously calm. They adore easygoing walks and can be quite affectionate with family members.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/newfoundland.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1959660"/></figure>



They often lean on their loved ones in a show of gentle devotion. A sturdy house with enough room for them to sprawl is ideal, since they thrive on cozy togetherness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-7-french-bulldog">7) French bulldog</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/french-bulldog-puppy-spontaneously-regrows-jaw-that-was-removed-due-to-cancer/">French bulldogs</a> have a playful, relaxed demeanor. Their compact size allows them to adapt to smaller spaces, though they still crave close contact.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/french-bulldog.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1959661"/></figure>



They often contentedly snooze in their owners’ laps or right at their feet. People appreciate their even temper and readiness to bond with everyone in the household.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-8-dachshund">8) Dachshund</h2>



Dachshunds have a unique silhouette and lively confidence. Many enjoy nestling under blankets or curling in a warm corner near their favorite humans.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/dachshund.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1959662"/></figure>



They offer both spunk and gentle companionship in equal measure. This blend of spirit and snuggling makes them lovable housemates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-9-bichon-frise">9) Bichon frisé</h2>



Bichon frisés look like little puffs of cloud but they have perky personalities. They remain curious about family activities and want to be part of every moment.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/bichon-frise.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1959663"/></figure>



They often perch on laps or brush against legs, letting you know they crave attention. Anyone seeking a cuddly companion might find this breed delightful.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-10-boxer">10) Boxer</h2>



Boxers can appear serious, but they are committed to sharing warmth. With proper outlets for their energy, they stay eager to connect with people.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/boxer.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1959664"/></figure>



They lean into their owners or rest a paw on a knee to seek a pat. Their devotion can be strong, and their vibrant spirit adds an uplifting presence at home.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-concluding-thoughts">Concluding thoughts</h2>



Dogs bring more than just companionship - they offer warmth, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/friends-family-members-and-guardians-dogs-are-more-than-just-pets/">security</a>, and unconditional love. For those who want a pet that thrives on closeness, choosing a breed known for affection can make all the difference.



A close bond with a dog can elevate the quality of daily life. Seeing how these ten breeds naturally adore comfort and cuddles helps future owners choose a dog that will be a good match.



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Most affectionate dog breeds that adore cuddles and hugs

Many people want a dog that offers unwavering affection. Some...

Deep in the rugged Apennine Mountains of central Italy, a rare and elusive creature roams the dense forests and rocky slopes. The Apennine brown bear, also known as the Marsican brown bear (Ursus arctos marsicanus), is one of the most endangered bear populations in the world. 



Isolated for centuries, this subspecies has developed unique characteristics that set it apart from other brown bears. But with only around 50 individuals left in the wild, its future hangs in the balance.



Efforts to protect this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-brown-bears-are-digging-up-japans-artificial-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">remarkable species</a> have long been in motion, but new research has uncovered a troubling genetic flaw that could further threaten its survival. 



A study by the Italian <a href="https://endemixit.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Endemixit project</a> has revealed a mutation that affects the bears’ ability to produce energy, raising urgent concerns among conservationists.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-apennine-brown-bear-faces-extinction">Apennine brown bear faces extinction</h2>



The Apennine brown bear has adapted to life in the mountains, developing smaller body size, a more herbivorous diet, and less aggressive behavior compared to other brown bear populations. 



Despite these adaptations, it remains highly vulnerable due to habitat destruction, illegal hunting, and the increasing presence of human settlements.



Unlike other bear <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grizzly-bears-help-huckleberries-thrive-in-a-changing-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> that thrive across large territories, the Apennine brown bear is confined to a small, fragmented area. This isolation has led to genetic bottlenecking, making it more susceptible to inherited disorders. 



Now, scientists have discovered a mutation that may be weakening the species from within, making its survival even more precarious.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mutation-impairs-energy-production">Mutation impairs energy production </h2>



The latest findings, set to be presented at the 69th Biophysical Society Annual Meeting in Los Angeles, shed light on a crucial genetic issue.



Researchers identified a mutation in the ND5 subunit of Respiratory Complex I, which plays a vital role in mitochondrial function. Mitochondria, often called the "powerhouses" of cells, generate the energy needed for survival.



When this system fails, the consequences can be severe. The mutation impairs energy production and leads to an increase in harmful byproducts like reactive oxygen species. 



These molecules damage cells and accelerate aging, potentially reducing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/keeping-the-peace-how-drones-can-help-humans-and-bears-coexist/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bears</a>’ lifespan and weakening their ability to cope with environmental stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mutation-weakens-the-brown-bear">Mutation weakens the brown bear</h2>



"This mutation appears to significantly impact these bears," explained Nunzio Perta, a graduate student in the lab of Daniele Di Marino at Marche Polytechnic <a href="https://www.univpm.it/Entra/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University in Ancona</a>, Italy. 



"It's like they're constantly running on low batteries. This could make it harder for them to survive, especially in a challenging environment."



The Apennine brown bear must endure harsh winters, long periods of food scarcity, and threats from human activity. Reduced energy levels could make it harder for them to store enough fat for hibernation, defend their territory, or find sufficient food sources. 



This weakness may also affect reproduction, further worsening their already low numbers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-solution-in-their-diet">Potential solution in their diet</h2>



While the genetic mutation presents a serious threat, researchers believe there may be ways to help the bears cope. One promising approach involves diet modification. 



Since the mutation increases the production of reactive oxygen species, scientists are exploring whether certain foods could help counteract the damage.



One possible solution involves increasing the availability of antioxidant-rich plants in their habitat. Perta suggests that planting more native berry species could be beneficial. These plants could provide the bears with natural sources of antioxidants, helping to neutralize harmful molecules and improve their overall health.



"By understanding the molecular basis of these genetic problems, we hope to create a plan to protect these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-bears-are-suffering-from-an-energy-deficit-due-to-lack-of-food-access/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bears</a> in their natural environment,” said Perta. “The bears are a crucial part of the very unique ecosystem that we have here in Italy.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-role-of-the-brown-bear">Ecological role of the brown bear</h2>



Beyond their own survival, these bears play a critical role in maintaining the health of their ecosystem. 



As large mammals, they help regulate prey populations, spread seeds, and influence vegetation growth. Their presence shapes the balance of the mountain forests, affecting countless other species.



If the Apennine brown bear were to disappear, the ecological consequences could be profound. The loss of a top predator often triggers cascading effects, leading to overpopulation of certain animals and changes in plant dynamics. 



Protecting these bears means preserving an entire web of life that depends on their existence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-efforts-must-adapt">Conservation efforts must adapt</h2>



Conservationists have worked tirelessly to protect the remaining population through habitat restoration, anti-poaching measures, and public awareness campaigns. But this new genetic discovery highlights the need for a more targeted approach.



Understanding the impact of the mitochondrial mutation could help refine conservation strategies. Efforts to enhance the bears’ diet, reduce human disturbances, and maintain genetic diversity may all be necessary to give the species a fighting chance. 



With such a small population, every individual bear matters, and every action taken now could shape the future of the species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-race-against-time">A race against time</h2>



The fate of the Apennine brown bear remains uncertain, but there is still hope. Scientific research, community involvement, and policy changes can make a difference in ensuring these bears continue to roam the Italian mountains. 



The discovery of this genetic mutation may be alarming, but it also provides an opportunity to act before it is too late.



Protecting this unique bear is not just about saving a single <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-bear-tardigrade-fossils-reveal-how-they-survived-several-mass-extinction-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>. It is about preserving a rich and fragile ecosystem that has existed for centuries. With urgent action, the Apennine brown bear can continue to be a symbol of Italy’s wild heritage for generations to come.



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Endangered brown bears have a genetic 'weak spot'

Deep in the rugged Apennine Mountains of central Italy, a...

Some sea creatures prefer to linger in their eggs, waiting for a precise moment to appear. This strategy can range from a few weeks to several years, as certain octopuses spend more than 4 years inside their eggs, and eel-nosed sharks stay put for over 3 years.



Selecting the right hatching day can mean the difference between thriving and perishing. Embryos that hatch too early may face predators or insufficient resources, while those emerging too late risk missing optimal conditions or becoming trapped inside a deteriorating eggshell.



A recent study has revealed new details about the hatching timeline of fish embryos. The research was led by Dr. Matan Golan of the <a href="https://en.huji.ac.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hebrew University of Jerusalem</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-eggs-wait-to-hatch">Why eggs wait to hatch</h2>



Many organisms coordinate their arrival with favorable surroundings, relying on environmental signals like tidal shifts, changing temperatures, or even the sounds of predators. 



For fish, these cues can be subtle yet powerful, shaping their transition from protected egg to independent juvenile.



Embryos sense these factors through partial information crossing the eggshell. Yet the exact trigger that moves a fish from quiet embryo to active hatchling has remained unclear.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-single-hormone-controls-fish-hatching">Single hormone controls fish hatching</h2>



The researchers suspected thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) might play a major role in fish development because it influences metabolism and lactation in mammals.



In zebrafish, the team found that blocking TRH meant the embryos never left their eggs, suggesting a missing puzzle piece in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shark-embryo-mortality-could-rise-by-71-percent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hatching</a> equation.



The experts applied CRISPR technology to disrupt TRH production. As a result, the zebrafish stayed sealed inside their chorions and eventually perished. A simple injection of TRH rescued the fish - triggering hatching in under two minutes and confirming its vital function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-common-evolutionary-thread">A common evolutionary thread</h2>



When fish hatch, specialized cells release proteolytic enzymes that weaken the eggshell. TRH appears to prompt these cells to act, ensuring a swift exit once conditions feel right.



To check if this hormone-based strategy is widespread, the team investigated Oryzias latipes, a distant relative of zebrafish. An injection of TRH in this species also triggered immediate hatching, indicating a common thread across more than 200 million years of evolution.



Although these fish differ in body form and reproductive habits, they share a reliance on TRH to break free. This consistency highlights how deeply conserved such mechanisms can be.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-environmental-cues">The role of environmental cues</h2>



The natural habitat for many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-find-new-ways-to-reproduce-in-response-to-predators/">fish</a> is changing quickly, with pollution and warming waters altering the signals that eggs receive. If embryonic cues shift, fish might hatch at the wrong moment, jeopardizing entire populations.



Conservationists are exploring whether hormonal pathways like TRH can be affected by chemical disruptors or temperature swings. 



Understanding these vulnerabilities could guide strategies for sustaining vital fish stocks in unpredictable conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-fish-biology">Beyond fish biology</h2>



TRH is studied in humans for its impact on hormonal balance, but fish show it may also direct critical life transitions. 



Such findings encourage scientists to rethink how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/319-million-year-old-fish-holds-clues-about-brain-evolution/">embryonic brains</a> sense and respond to changing environments.



Comparative approaches might reveal if other aquatic or terrestrial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-species-of-deep-sea-squid-discovered-that-broods-giant-eggs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> use similar neuroendocrine signals. The insights could improve our understanding of the evolution of parental investment and embryo autonomy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-precise-timing-of-fish-hatching">Precise timing of fish hatching</h2>



Biologists still wonder how fish embryos decide the precise moment to activate TRH. Some suspect that the embryo’s brain gathers data on water oxygen levels, temperature shifts, or chemical cues released by predators.



Future studies may investigate whether additional hormones or genes combine with TRH to refine this timing. The results may illuminate broader survival strategies and help researchers predict how species adapt to an ever-changing planet.



Farms that raise fish for food or conservation programs might harness this knowledge to optimize breeding and release efforts. By regulating the environment, hatchery managers may encourage consistent hatching windows that boost survival.



In the wild, interventions could focus on reducing pollutants that interfere with TRH signaling. These measures might prevent developmental mismatches where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-do-egg-cells-have-a-swirl-pattern/">eggs open</a> too early or too late.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-searching-for-more-clues">Searching for more clues</h2>



Studies in amphibians, reptiles, and even birds could reveal parallel systems, confirming that embryos are more active decision-makers than once believed. 



Each discovery challenges the notion of passive development and reveals how life orchestrates its own transformations.



Further research will examine whether TRH or related signals also influence other milestones, such as yolk absorption or the onset of feeding. This knowledge might inform future efforts to protect biodiversity under stress from climate shifts and habitat loss.



Scientists hope to identify genetic variants that fine-tune how TRH responds to environmental triggers. This line of inquiry could explain species differences in hatching schedules and inform selective breeding for aquaculture.



Additional experiments may look at how fish sense vibrations, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-discovery-water-molecules-will-force-chemistry-textbooks-to-be-rewritten/">water chemistry changes</a>, or even mild electrical fields. Each factor might contribute to the embryonic countdown that ends with a swift swim into open water.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.ado8929" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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'Master switch' controls the timing of fish egg hatching

Some sea creatures prefer to linger in their eggs, waiting...

Sea turtles have fascinated people for generations. Their calm nature on the shore belies an intricate journey across the open ocean that seems almost impossible to track. Their ability to migrate thousands of miles has puzzled researchers for years. 



Experts have long suspected that sea turtles rely on Earth’s magnetic field to chart their course, but the details were not entirely clear.



A study led by Kayla Goforth from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill has focused on how these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-sea-turtles-swim-and-choose-their-paths-instead-of-drifting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> might learn and remember different magnetic signals that mark important locations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-navigation-with-earth-s-magnetic-field">Navigation with Earth’s magnetic field</h2>



Loggerhead turtles are known for their extended travels to specific feeding spots and nesting grounds. They can roam over 1,000 miles in the Atlantic, always finding their way back to familiar waters.



The study reveals that these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/turtles-have-genomes-unlike-any-other-animal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a> not only have an internal map but can pick up distinct magnetic signals from important destinations. This ability may help them return to prime foraging areas without losing their sense of direction.



“Our study investigated for the first time whether a migratory animal can learn to recognize the magnetic signatures of different geographic areas," said Goforth. 



"Researchers have speculated for decades that animals can learn magnetic signatures, but this is the first empirical demonstration of that ability, so it fills in an important gap in our knowledge."



Sea turtles use these learned signals much like memorized landmarks. Each area’s magnetic signature might serve as a mental pin on the ocean’s map, guiding them with surprising accuracy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-magnetic-senses-of-sea-turtles">Magnetic senses of sea turtles </h2>



Scientists have long debated whether sea turtles have a single magnetic sense or multiple. The new data points to a magnetic compass sense and a magnetic map sense, each functioning differently.



In practical terms, one sense helps the reptiles align themselves in a direction, while the other helps them know where they are in the grand scheme of Earth’s field. This dual system seems to be a key factor in long-distance migration.



“The ability to distinguish among magnetic fields of different geographic areas likely explains how many animals – not just sea turtles – can navigate long distances to specific locations,” said Ken Lohmann, a professor of biology at UNC-Chapel Hill.



The findings suggest that multiple migratory species could be relying on a similar combination of orientation and positional information. People have observed comparable behaviors in certain birds, which points to an elegant pattern shared by different groups of animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-technology-and-conservation">Technology and conservation</h2>



Sea turtles’ sensory talents might inform modern navigation solutions. Some engineers study how animals interpret electromagnetic cues to improve drones and autonomous vehicles.



Protecting turtles involves more than preventing poaching or pollution. Conservationists now wonder if man-made magnetic interference, such as power cables, might confuse sea turtles trying to make their way home.



“It is amazing that sea turtles have access to a wealth of invisible information that they use to navigate in ways that are hard for us to even imagine,” said Catherine Lohmann, a biology professor at UNC-Chapel Hill. 



Some experts suggest that marine development plans take into account the sensitive magnetic world these creatures rely on. Careful planning might minimize disruptions, giving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-turtle-day-protecting-turtles-tortoises-and-their-vanishing-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">turtles</a> a better shot at reaching their feeding and nesting grounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connecting-physics-and-biology">Connecting physics and biology </h2>



One of the more surprising aspects of the research involved a specialized antenna system. It helped recreate specific magnetic conditions in a controlled environment so turtles could be exposed to different fields.



“Remarkably, the antenna system we built for the turtle study is nearly identical to that of an unrelated dark matter search we had worked on,” said Reyco Henning, a professor in UNC-Chapel Hill’s Department of Physics and Astronomy. 



This overlap between physics and biology shows that solving real-world puzzles often brings together multiple branches of science.



With such technology, scientists can observe how animals respond to shifting magnetic elements without sending them out to sea. That approach speeds up data collection and expands what researchers can learn in a lab setting.



The team aims to test whether loggerheads can remember multiple magnetic fields and how quickly they adapt to novel signals. Further questions remain about how these navigation skills develop and whether <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/turtles-with-unique-features-are-most-likely-to-go-extinct/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">turtles</a> pass on any knowledge to offspring.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-sea-turtles">Future research on sea turtles </h2>



Future projects plan to look deeper at how turtles stitch together bits of magnetic data to map vast swaths of the ocean. Investigations might also see if certain environmental factors affect this map-building skill, or if there’s any limit to what they can learn.



Other marine animals, like some fish, appear to sense magnetism as well. Scientists are keen to see if a shared mechanism influences how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-sea-turtle-day-celebrating-100-million-years-of-majesty/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">different species</a> roam across the planet.



There’s hope that a better grasp of these magnetic senses can lead to strategies that protect sensitive habitats. Insights from turtle research might help balance human development with the needs of ocean-dwelling creatures.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08554-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Sea turtles use Earth's magnetic field like an invisible map

Sea turtles have fascinated people for generations. Their calm nature...

Early explorers wondered why two neighboring islands, separated by the Wallace Line, had such different wildlife. They saw tigers and elephants on one side, while marsupials lived just a short boat ride away.



Dr. Penny Van Oosterzee, an ecological researcher at <a href="https://www.jcu.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Cook University</a>, has studied these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutions-many-solutions-nature-finds-multiple-paths-to-success/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a> for years. She sees them as a reminder of how physical barriers can split habitats even when they sit close by.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-wallace-line-separates-species">The Wallace Line separates species</h2>



The Wallace Line runs through Southeast Asia, marking where Asian species give way to Australian species. 



It crosses narrow waters between Borneo and Sulawesi, and between Bali and Lombok, which lie only about 15 miles apart.



Even though it is not an official border, it acts like one for many animals. Flocks of Asian birds thrive on one side, but groups of Australian cockatoos stay on the other.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-invisible-fence">An invisible fence </h2>



A deep ocean trench, known as the Makassar Strait, is key to this puzzle. During past ice ages, many islands were connected by land bridges when sea levels dropped.



Yet that submerged gap never vanished here, so animals could not simply wander across. Highly specialized species remained where they could find food, avoid predators, and keep up their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/embryo-development-shows-how-evolution-had-many-options-to-choose-from/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival strategies</a>.



Even birds, which can fly, tend to stay within their familiar habitats because of differences in climate and food availability. The Wallace Line, in many ways, acts like an invisible fence shaped by nature’s own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolving-evolution-how-life-learns-to-adapt-better/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">design</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-makassar-strait-the-basics">Understanding the Makassar Strait - the basics</h2>



The Makassar Strait is a narrow stretch of water that runs between the islands of Borneo and Sulawesi in Indonesia. 



It connects the Celebes Sea in the north to the Java Sea in the south, making it a key passage for ships traveling between the Pacific and Indian Oceans. 



The strait isn’t just a busy maritime route - it’s also home to some incredible marine life. 



Strong ocean currents flow through, bringing nutrient-rich waters that support vibrant coral reefs, fish, and even deep-sea creatures. 



It’s a hotspot for divers and researchers alike, offering a glimpse into Indonesia’s rich underwater biodiversity.



The region is also a key focus for climate change research, as rising sea levels and shifting currents affect both marine ecosystems and coastal communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-wallace-line-shaped-evolution">The Wallace Line shaped evolution</h2>



This unique divide helped shape some early ideas about how species change over time. It sparked thoughts on biogeography, the study of how plants and animals are distributed across the planet.



When Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace independently <a href="https://evolution.berkeley.edu/the-history-of-evolutionary-thought/1800s/natural-selection-charles-darwin-alfred-russel-wallace/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wrote</a> about natural selection in the mid-1800s, they each pointed to real-world examples of animals adapting to local conditions. 



The stark difference between these islands stood out to Wallace.



His observations supported the idea that species do not appear randomly but evolve based on their environment. 



The Wallace Line became one of the strongest cases for how geographic barriers can drive the formation of new species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-different-perspective">A different perspective</h2>



There are debates over the geographic accuracy of the line. Researchers have <a href="https://academic.oup.com/biolinnean/article/130/1/225/5802023" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">called</a> for the boundary line to be redrawn.&nbsp;



“We suggest that Wallace’s Line be redrawn such that the landmass is placed on the Australasian side of this fundamental biogeographical boundary,” wrote Jason Ali and colleagues from the University of Hong Kong.



Shifting a line on a map may seem simple, but it shows how active science can be. As more research appears, definitions can move, and old ideas can adapt.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-wallace-line-and-human-history">The Wallace Line and human history</h2>



The idea of a boundary extends to humans and not only wildlife. The racial and political effects of the line have been studied at length.&nbsp;



“The difference between these two people had already been noticed by early European travelers, together with the difference in flora and fauna,” noted Fenneke Sysling from the University of Utrecht in The Netherlands.



Many decades ago, claims emerged that certain groups east of the line shared traits with Papuans, while those west of the line fit the Malay category. 



Debates around these claims have carried into modern times, highlighting how complex human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-gene-families-pangenome-influence-called-revolutionary/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity</a> can be.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geographic-borders-and-human-evolution">Geographic borders and human evolution</h2>



Various projects track bird populations, insects, and even marsupials (kangaroo) to see how borders and evolution link together. 



Shallow seas no longer block human travel, yet animals remain bound by their own quirks.



Scientists ask whether climate changes or habitat loss might shift wildlife distributions in the future. Updates on these studies add another layer of intrigue to a line first drawn in the 19th century.



The Wallace Line demonstrates how subtle geographic forces can create stark contrasts in living things. It also reminds us that physical distance is not always the main factor - evolutionary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">history</a> and chance play major roles.



With all of the debates and shifting perspectives, one thing is clear: the planet holds more surprises than any single line can capture.



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The Wallace Line: A natural border line that no species will cross

Early explorers wondered why two neighboring islands, separated by the...

Large birds, the closest relatives of dinosaurs, have demonstrated their intelligence by solving physical challenges to access food. Scientists have now shown that emus and rheas, part of the palaeognath group, can tackle complex tasks.



Despite their reputation for lacking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-brain-study-will-shed-new-light-on-avian-intelligence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">intelligence</a>, emus successfully developed a new technique to obtain food. They aligned a hole with a food chamber and adjusted its position efficiently in 90% of trials.



A male rhea not only used this method but also invented another - rotating a central bolt until the task collapsed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-crows-and-parrots">Beyond crows and parrots</h2>



Dr. Fay Clark, from Bristol’s <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/psychology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of Psychological Science</a>, emphasized the importance of expanding avian research beyond commonly studied species.



“A large body of research shows that crows and parrots are effective problem-solvers, and while scientists have recently taken interest in other birds like gulls and birds of prey, all of these birds belong to the same phylogenetic group, Neognathae," noted Dr. Clark.



“The problem? The more we study the same species repeatedly, the more we create an ‘echo chamber’ of knowledge and create a false impression that other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-brains-fossil-reveals-roots-of-avian-intelligence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> are less ‘intelligent’ but in reality they haven’t been studied to the same level.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cognitive-limits-of-palaeognaths">Cognitive limits of palaeognaths</h2>



Dr. Clark's research involved three palaeognath species - emus, rheas, and ostriches - at a local zoo.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rethinking-brain-evolution-birds-and-mammals-took-different-paths/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> participated in ten test sessions using a rotating wheel that had to be aligned with a hole to receive a food reward. While emus and rheas demonstrated problem-solving abilities, the ostriches in this study did not innovate.



“We classify palaeognath innovation as low level or simplistic – and it is certainly not as complex as the innovation we see in crows and parrots," Dr. Clark explained.



“However, it is still a very important finding. There were no reports of technical innovation in palaeognaths before our study, and there was a prevailing view that they are ‘dumb’ birds."



“Our research suggests that is not true and that technical innovation may have evolved far earlier in birds than previously thought.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



The study's authors plan to extend their research to more bird species, particularly those that have not been traditionally studied in cognitive science. 



A broader sample of birds interacting with the same rotating wheel task could help identify patterns in problem-solving abilities across different evolutionary groups.



Additionally, future research could explore how environmental factors influence intelligence. 



Do birds that face frequent challenges in the wild develop better problem-solving skills? How does social structure impact cognitive development? Answering these questions could deepen our understanding of avian intelligence.



“The more we study palaeognath birds, the more we can understand the broader picture of bird cognition. And because palaeognaths birds are the closest living relatives to dinosaurs, research might shed light on how dinosaurs behaved,” said Dr. Clark.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-environment-in-bird-intelligence">Role of environment in bird intelligence</h2>



Bird intelligence does not exist in isolation - it develops in response to environmental challenges. Species that regularly face obstacles in the wild may develop problem-solving skills as a survival strategy.



For instance, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-navigate-using-clues-from-earths-magnetic-field/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> that forage in unpredictable conditions or compete for scarce resources might be more likely to innovate. 



Emus and rheas, which live in diverse habitats, may benefit from adaptability. Ostriches, however, tend to rely on speed and size rather than problem-solving to escape predators, which could explain their different approach to the task.



By studying birds in different settings, scientists can better understand how environment influences cognitive development. Future research could compare problem-solving abilities between wild and captive birds to see how natural challenges shape intelligence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-bird-intelligence">Rethinking bird intelligence</h2>



The study challenges long-standing assumptions about intelligence in birds. By shifting the focus beyond traditionally studied species, scientists are uncovering new insights into the cognitive abilities of different bird groups. 



Palaeognaths, once thought to be among the least intelligent birds, have now demonstrated problem-solving skills that suggest a more complex picture of avian intelligence.



As research continues, it is likely that more bird species will prove to be capable of innovation and learning. The findings not only reshape how we view bird intelligence but also prompt new discussions about the evolutionary roots of problem-solving behavior. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-88217-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Large flightless birds are more intelligent than we realized

Large birds, the closest relatives of dinosaurs, have demonstrated their...

For centuries, sea turtles have followed the rhythms of the ocean, returning to the same shores where they were born for nesting and to lay their eggs. These ancient creatures, some of which have existed since the time of the dinosaurs, have always relied on nature’s consistency. 



But now, the climate is changing faster than ever, and the turtles must adapt - or risk losing entire generations.



New research offers a glimpse into how these resilient animals are responding. Scientists monitoring green and loggerhead turtles in <a href="https://cyprusturtles.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cyprus</a> have observed a remarkable shift. These turtles are nesting earlier each year, a subtle yet crucial adjustment that could determine the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-sea-turtles-swim-and-choose-their-paths-instead-of-drifting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">future of their species.</a>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shift-in-turtles-nesting-patterns">Shift in turtles nesting patterns</h2>



Temperature plays a crucial role in determining the survival and sex ratio of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-turtles-use-earths-magnetic-field-like-an-invisible-map/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea turtle</a> hatchlings. Unlike mammals, sea turtles do not have genetically predetermined sexes at birth. 



Instead, the temperature of the sand where the eggs are incubated decides whether more males or females will hatch. Warmer sand results in a higher number of female hatchlings, while cooler sand leads to more males. 



However, when temperatures rise too much, it can become too hot for the eggs to develop properly, leading to fewer hatchlings surviving.



Another important factor in turtle reproduction is "natal philopatry," a behavior where turtles return to the same beach where they hatched to lay their own eggs. This strong instinct means they may struggle to find new nesting sites even if their birthplace becomes too warm for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-turtles-show-signs-of-recovery-but-conservation-issues-remain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">successful hatching</a>.



A research team from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Exeter</a> and the Society for the Protection of Turtles studied nesting patterns over three decades. Their data suggests that if temperatures keep rising at the current rate, loggerhead turtles could face severe reproductive challenges by 2100. 



Without adapting their nesting schedule and laying eggs earlier in the season, they may struggle to produce enough viable offspring to sustain their population.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-temperature-s-impact-on-turtle-nesting">Temperature’s impact on turtle nesting</h2>



Researchers placed temperature loggers in nests while females were laying eggs. They later retrieved them after the hatchlings emerged. The data indicated that turtles need to adjust their nesting by 0.5 days per year to maintain the current sex ratio and by 0.7 days per year to prevent egg failures.



Fortunately, loggerhead turtles seem to be adapting. The study shows they have already been nesting 0.78 days earlier per year since 1993. This shift has helped maintain hatching success, at least for now.



“This is a bit of good news, as we’ve shown that these turtles are responding to the elevated temperatures brought about by climate change by shifting to cooler months to nest," Professor Annette Broderick explained.



"There is no guarantee that they carry on doing this though – it’s very much dependent on how much the temperature rises, and also what they are eating. If the timing of production in terms of where their food's coming from shifts, then they could start to be disconnected ecologically between where they forage and where they breed.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adjusting-the-nesting-schedule">Adjusting the nesting schedule </h2>



The research team also examined over 600 green <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-sea-turtle-day-celebrating-100-million-years-of-majesty/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">turtles</a> nesting at a beach in North Cyprus. Their study aimed to understand what determines when these turtles start laying eggs each year.



The findings revealed that individual turtles adjust their nesting schedule based on sea temperature. 



For every 1°C rise in ocean temperature, they nested 6.47 days earlier. Temperature alone accounted for about 30% of this advancement. More experienced females and those laying multiple clutches also nested earlier.



“To know if the advancement we see now will continue into the future, it is crucial to understand the combined effects of changes in, for example, the age structure of the population, and how individual turtles respond to environmental change,” noted lead author Mollie Rickwood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-challenges-for-turtle-populations">Future challenges for turtle populations</h2>



While <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-turtle-day-protecting-turtles-tortoises-and-their-vanishing-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">turtles</a> are currently adapting to temperature changes, long-term survival remains uncertain. Cyprus may eventually become too warm for nesting, though cooler locations in the Mediterranean might provide alternative sites.



“Although our turtles appear to be coping with current rising temperatures, it is unclear how long they may be able to do this before conditions in Cyprus are no longer suitable, but cooler locations in the Mediterranean may become available for them to nest,” said Dr. Damla Beton from the Society for the Protection of Turtles.



The findings were published in Endangered Species Research and <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.1809" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.



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Beating the heat: How sea turtles cope with warming waters

For centuries, sea turtles have followed the rhythms of the...

species in Protodrilidae

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