A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

The far side of the moon holds many mysteries, including massive trenches near its south pole that have long puzzled astronomers. 



Recent findings suggest that these formations, comparable in size to the Grand Canyon, likely took shape in just minutes. Scientists believe they were sculpted by the immense forces unleashed by an ancient impact billions of years ago.



David Kring of the Lunar and Planetary Institute of the <a href="https://www.usra.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Universities Space Research Association</a> in Houston played a leading role in investigating this phenomenon. 



Along with fellow researchers, Kring found that the ancient collision hurled massive amounts of rocky debris across the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-recent-mini-moon-2024-pt5-seems-to-be-a-lost-fragment-of-our-real-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lunar surface</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-formation-speed">Unexpected formation speed</h2>



Computer simulations point to an extraordinary <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-55675-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">event</a> that occurred about 3.8 billion years ago. 



A 15-mile-wide space rock released energy equivalent to about 130 times the global stockpile of nuclear weapons in under 10 minutes.



The catastrophic force tore two canyons, each stretching around 170 miles in length. One is roughly 2.2 miles deep, while the other descends about 1.7 miles below the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-the-moon-looks-100-million-years-younger-than-its-true-age/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surface</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moon-canyons-carved-by-debris">Moon canyons carved by debris </h2>



"Knots of rock within that curtain of debris hit the surface in a series of smaller impact events, effectively carving the canyons," said Kring.



Data from NASA’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/lro/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter</a> revealed that boulders sped across the moon at nearly 2,200 miles per hour. 



Straight-line features near the <a href="https://www.lpi.usra.edu/science/schrodinger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Schrödinger impact basin</a> trace the path of these ejected fragments. This basin rests on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-are-searching-for-viable-sources-of-water-on-the-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon</a>’s far side, forming one of the last massive craters in the inner solar system’s era of heavy bombardment.



Our planet has lost most evidence of similar events because of <a href="https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/plate-tectonics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plate tectonics</a>. Sections of Earth’s crust shift and plunge under each other, recycling ancient terrain and erasing old scars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-space-rocks-on-a-collision-course">Space rocks on a collision course</h2>



The researchers link the ancient collision to a time when Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune may have shifted their orbits. These changes are thought to have triggered a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature03676" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surge of asteroids</a> directed toward the inner solar system.



Unusual gravitational interactions are believed to have nudged many space rocks onto collision courses with the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasas-next-giant-leap-creating-a-time-zone-for-the-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lunar-exploration-potential">Lunar exploration potential</h2>



The <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/artemis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Artemis program</a> aims to send astronauts to the moon’s polar region for the first time since the 1970s. Researchers suspect that remnants of rock tossed outward by the canyon-forming impact may be easier to reach near the polar zone.



Those samples could clarify how the <a href="https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/moons/earths-moon/in-depth" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon formed</a> after a huge object struck Earth in the distant past. Many scientists propose that molten material spun off and coalesced as Earth cooled, leaving behind the natural satellite we see today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moon-canyons-remain-unchanged">Moon canyons remain unchanged</h2>



Some planetary bodies exhibit dramatic changes over eons, but the moon’s surface remains relatively static. Tectonic activity is minimal there, so relics from ancient collisions stay visible.



Nearby craters have peppered the same region across millions of years, yet the two large chasms stand out. Their linear shape radiates away from the round zone of impact, indicating a unique origin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moon-canyons-and-solar-system-history">Moon canyons and solar system history</h2>



Several lines of evidence show that the canyons appeared when chunks of rock slammed back to the ground soon after the main collision. Researchers rely on crater patterns and topographic mapping to verify this sequence.



This chaotic process likely occurred elsewhere in the early solar system. Shattered material from violent impacts shaped many worlds before they settled into their current orbits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-on-future-missions">Impact on future missions</h2>



Astronauts returning to the lunar environment might stand on ground shaped by that ancient chaos. Experts hope to collect core samples from these deep sites for clues about the first billion years of our cosmic neighborhood.



Those specimens might hold secrets about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moon-mining-and-space-debris-will-we-repeat-earths-mistakes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon’</a>s igneous history and the tempo of bombardments. Each layer represents a milestone in the moon’s timeline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-moon-canyons">Significance of the moon canyons</h2>



Investigating these canyons on the moon could refine our knowledge of lunar geology and the origins of rocky bodies across the solar system. Their existence suggests that cataclysmic impacts were far more common than once assumed.



This discovery shapes our thinking about planetary evolution and highlights the value of studying ancient surfaces. New data could shift perspectives on the moon’s role in Earth’s early development.



In a single cataclysmic moment, a space rock bigger than the dinosaur-killing asteroid transformed a quiet lunar basin. Now, future explorers may look into those gashes for signs of our shared planetary past.



Curiosity about these colossal scars will likely fuel more research and inspire new generations of observers.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-55675-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Asteroid impact carved massive canyons on the moon in minutes

The far side of the moon holds many mysteries, including...

An Australian team of astronomers has created a specialized way to sift through radio signals in space, looking to identify their sources. The experts studied bright flashes of energy that appear suddenly and then vanish almost as quickly.



The research was led by Dr. Andy Wang from the Curtin University node of the International Centre for Radio Astronomy <a href="https://www.icrar.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">(ICRAR)</a>. He and his collaborators tested a system that can pick out rare signals in the middle of enormous data streams.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-fast-radio-flashes">Tracking fast radio flashes</h2>



Scientists often refer to these bursts as <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1147532" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fast radio bursts</a>, which are intense radio waves that can release as much energy in a moment as the Sun does in a day. No one really knows what causes them, but they show up unexpectedly all over the sky.



“We were focused on finding fast radio bursts, a mysterious phenomenon that has opened up a new field of research in astronomy,” said Dr. Wang.



Experts have been <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-x-ray-flashes-are-accelerating-in-a-black-hole/">studying these flashes</a> since they were first reported in 2007, yet they keep surprising us with odd variations.



The new CRACO system of analysis helped the team detect two of these quick radio signals in their pilot run. The system also identified two sporadically-emitting <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/universe/neutron-stars-are-weird/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neutron stars</a>, which are smaller cores left behind when massive stars burn out.



This fresh approach helped the researchers refine the positions of four <a href="https://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/science/objects/neutron_stars1.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pulsars</a>, which are rotating stellar remnants that broadcast beams of energy at timed intervals.



The experts also detected more than 20 additional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fast-radio-bursts-are-even-more-mysterious-than-we-thought/">fast radio bursts</a> afterward, which was an unexpected bonus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-approach-with-craco">A new approach with CRACO</h2>



<a href="https://astronomy.curtin.edu.au/research/craft/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CRACO</a> involves a collection of powerful computers and accelerators. The system analyzes trillions of pixels of information received by telescopes linked to the <a href="https://www.csiro.au/en/about/facilities-collections/atnf/askap-radio-telescope" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ASKAP radio telescope</a> at the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation <a href="https://www.csiro.au/en/research/technology-space/astronomy-space?start=0&amp;count=12" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">(CSIRO)</a>.



ASKAP is an array of antennas in Western Australia that scans wide areas of the sky to catch radio signals.



“CRACO is enabling us to find these bursts better than ever before. We have been searching for bursts 100 times per second and in the future we expect this will increase to 1,000 times per second,” noted Dr. Wang. He expressed excitement about covering such vast swaths of data in real time.



CRACO looks at the sky in short, frequent snapshots. It filters out unnecessary noise and flags anything that might be a sudden spike in radio waves.



“That’s the equivalent of sifting through a whole beach of sand to look for a single five-cent coin every minute,” said Dr. Keith Bannister, the CSIRO astronomer and engineer who helped build the instrument. The speed of scanning reaches 100 billion pixels per second.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-period-radio-transients">Long-period radio transients</h2>



These bursts are not the only things drawing attention. The researchers also noticed long-period transients, which stay lit up for longer stretches compared to the super-fast flashes.



They appear to be unusual objects within our own galaxy, though they remain puzzling. Dr. Wang and his colleagues hope to gather more clues about their nature as CRACO expands its range.



Some transients turn off and on at unpredictable intervals. This irregular behavior makes them tricky to spot without a system that can constantly watch for changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-the-unknown">Mapping the unknown</h2>



Knowing where radio signals come from in the sky helps experts figure out if they originate in distant galaxies or close by. Each burst or transient could reveal details about the environment that produced it.



Scientists believe that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/glitching-star-explains-cosmic-radio-bursts/">fast radio bursts</a> could travel across billions of light-years, carrying signs of how matter is distributed in that path. This might help map cosmic structures that are otherwise invisible.



When a burst’s location is pinned down, astronomers can compare that spot to optical data. If they locate a galaxy there, it hints at possible processes feeding the bursts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hunting-for-fast-radio-signals">Hunting for fast radio signals</h2>



CRACO will soon be offered as part of the <a href="https://www.atnf.csiro.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australia Telescope National Facility</a>, managed by CSIRO. This opens it up globally to scientists who want to hunt for fast radio bursts and other odd signals.



“Once at full capacity, CRACO will be a game changer for international astronomy,” said Dr. Wang. He believes the technology will find more objects out in space that defy expectations.



ASKAP itself is part of a wave of next-generation tools that collect vast amounts of data. Innovations like CRACO will handle the load, scanning the input swiftly and tagging unusual patterns.



Researchers want to tune CRACO’s speed so it can scan 1,000 times each second. That pace could reveal bursts that are too short or rare to catch using older methods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-lies-ahead">What lies ahead</h2>



The next steps involve adopting more advanced <a href="https://arxiv.org/html/2501.16770v1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">radio astronomy</a> engineering. These improvements might capture bursts that flicker and vanish in less than 10 milliseconds.



Each detection is a chance to learn something new about the cosmos. CRACO’s quick response system can notify astronomers right away, who can then steer other telescopes toward that target.



Scientists hope this technology will guide them to new puzzles about star formations, neutron stars, or even black hole activity. Any new object that flickers in radio waves might be part of this expanding list.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-next-wave-of-radio-signals">The next wave of radio signals</h2>



CRACO’s data will be archived and shared. This ensures that researchers worldwide can investigate the signals without having to start from scratch.



Global collaboration often leads to discoveries that might have been missed by a single group. As more international teams plug into CRACO, more eyes will pore over the data.



Australia’s strong reputation in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fast-radio-burst-frb-20240209a-detected-from-dead-galaxy-should-not-be-possible/">radio astronomy</a> rests on developments like ASKAP and CRACO. Astronomers praise these systems for their ability to process enormous datasets in near real time.



There is hope that the next wave of bursts and transients will shine a light on how galaxies form and evolve. Each flash tells a tiny story that, once pieced together, will help unravel cosmic mysteries.



The findings were published in the <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/publications-of-the-astronomical-society-of-australia/article/craft-coherent-craco-upgrade-i-system-description-and-results-of-the-110ms-radio-transient-pilot-survey/DDFC21A8ACFCAFE88561FC2856503558">Publications of the Astronomical Society of Australia</a>.



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Scientists detect more than 20 mysterious radio signals from space

An Australian team of astronomers has created a specialized way...

Over the years, people have turned to licorice not just for a sugary pick-me-up but also for various health-related reasons. Ancient societies in Egypt, Rome, and Greece relied on this root to cure colds and other ailments. Today, there’s growing curiosity about how this medicinal plant might help the body.



Licorice contains a unique compound called <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/glycyrrhizin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glycyrrhizin</a>, which has been studied for its influence on the immune system, digestion, and even mood. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-licorice-is-getting-attention">Why licorice is getting attention</h2>



Licorice root has been used in therapeutic settings for thousands of years. It is cultivated in regions across Asia, Europe, and the Middle East, where people have appreciated its sweet flavor for both confectionery and health uses.



Modern researchers have examined whether consuming licorice regularly might support respiratory function or offer some relief for sore throats. Some of these effects may stem from its anti-inflammatory properties, which appear to calm irritated tissues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-licorice-on-digestion"> Impact of licorice on digestion</h2>



People often mention licorice as a remedy for upset stomachs. Early research suggested it may help by boosting mucus production in the stomach, which could protect the lining from acid irritation. Supporters of the root also claim it can ease indigestion and reduce gas.



The challenge begins if portions get too large. In that case, licorice might put certain individuals at risk for adverse effects like elevated blood pressure or lower potassium levels, which can trigger problems with heart rhythm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-effects-of-licorice-on-mood">Effects of licorice on mood</h2>



Some people have used licorice for a mood boost. It contains a range of compounds that might offer support to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-has-its-own-mini-brain-that-controls-its-beat/">nervous system</a>, including nutrients that can influence one’s energy and outlook.



Still, experts recommend staying aware of personal tolerance levels. For some people, consuming licorice can cause jittery feelings and unusual heart activity, so they should not eat too much licorice candy or tea.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-caution-around-certain-health-conditions">Caution around certain health conditions</h2>



There is evidence that licorice can play a helpful role for individuals working through respiratory issues or trying to quit smoking.



Many turn to the root as a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/e-cigarettes-linked-to-increased-risk-of-heart-failure/">substitute for cigarettes</a>, but that approach should be weighed against any predisposition to high blood pressure.



“Licorice root is generally considered safe as a food ingredient, but it can cause serious side effects when consumed in large amounts or for long periods of time,” noted the National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (<a href="https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/licorice-root">NCCIH</a>). 



Individuals with kidney issues or heart ailments may want to avoid heavy licorice consumption.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-excessive-licorice-intake">Excessive licorice intake</h2>



Dr. Decio Armanini from the Endocrinology Unit at the <a href="https://www.unipd.it/en/university-hospital" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University Hospital of Padua</a> has conducted extensive research on the effects of licorice consumption, particularly its impact on hormones. He also warns about the potential impacts of eating too much licorice. 



For example, glycyrrhizin can lead to an increase in cortisol levels by inhibiting the enzyme 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2. 



This enzyme normally helps convert active cortisol into its inactive form, cortisone. As a result, excessive licorice intake can mimic symptoms of conditions like Cushing's syndrome.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-the-benefits-and-risks">Balancing the benefits and risks</h2>



Licorice has traveled across centuries and cultures as a multiuse herb. The root can be an ally when used wisely, but it can also become an unwelcome influence if overused.



Moderation is the key. Some people have reported great results by taking small amounts of licorice in lozenges to soothe sore throats, especially after medical procedures. Others find it helpful in managing mild digestive troubles.



If you're interested in exploring licorice for its potential <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-tea-delays-biological-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health benefits</a>, consider starting with small servings of high-quality licorice teas or dietary supplements from reputable sources. 



Licorice contains compounds that can influence various bodily functions, including blood pressure and electrolyte balance. Because of this, it's important to monitor for any changes in heart function, blood pressure, or fluid retention, especially if you have a history of hypertension, heart disease, or kidney issues. 



Consulting with a healthcare provider before incorporating licorice into your routine is advisable, as it can interact with certain medications and may not be suitable for everyone.



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'Candy' plant has revitalizing effects on the body, but only in moderation

Over the years, people have turned to licorice not just...

It’s widely believed that eating animal products gave early human relatives a boost in developing larger brains and stronger bodies.&nbsp;Many have argued that meat-based diets launched a chain reaction in our evolution, and that protein intake was linked to bigger brains and higher intelligence.



But new research is presenting a different picture of some ancient relatives: they might not have been munching on meat as often as we assumed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tooth-enamel-reveals-a-plant-diet">Tooth enamel reveals a plant diet</h2>



Researchers analyzed tooth enamel in seven <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/australopithecus-and-kin-145077614/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australopithecus</a> specimens uncovered in <a href="https://popular-archaeology.com/article/sterkfontein-a-history-of-evolution-in-the-cradle-of-humanity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sterkfontein, South Africa</a>, and found that these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-had-surprising-diets-3-5-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early hominins</a> consumed mostly plant-based foods.&nbsp;



The work used a method for measuring stable <a href="https://wwwrcamnl.wr.usgs.gov/isoig/period/n_iig.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nitrogen isotopes</a> in fossilized enamel. Specialists in human origins have looked to nitrogen isotopes for diet clues in more recent remains, but the technology has now been applied to samples that are millions of years old.



“Tooth enamel is the hardest tissue of the mammalian body and can preserve the isotopic fingerprint of an animal’s diet for millions of years,” explained <a href="https://www.mpic.de/person/123706/2285" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Tina Lüdecke</a>, a geochemist at the <a href="https://www.wits.ac.za/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of the Witwatersrand</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meat-free-diet-challenges-big-brain-hypothesis">Meat-free diet challenges big brain hypothesis</h2>



Many hypotheses <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/204350" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">link</a> meat consumption to expanded brain size in our lineage. Some researchers <a href="https://nature.berkeley.edu/miltonlab/pdfs/meateating.pdf">note</a> that dense protein sources could have contributed to physiological changes, allowing for more complex cognition.&nbsp;



The findings from Sterkfontein, however, indicate that these particular Australopithecus individuals didn’t eat a lot of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-diets-early-humans-richer-berries-nuts-plants-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meat</a>.



Their nitrogen isotope ratios aligned with those of herbivores from the same timeframe, hinting at a diet that was plant-based rather than meat-centric.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nitrogen-isotope-method">Nitrogen isotope method</h2>



Scientists previously faced a big hurdle: organic matter degrades in bones older than about 200,000 years. 



This new <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10082005/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">approach</a> recovers nitrogen signals locked within tooth enamel, and can give us answers about diet dating much further back in time.



Researchers examined the enamel from these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-age-diet-deer-and-trout-were-on-the-menu-10000-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hominins</a> and other animals. Herbivores showed distinct nitrogen isotope signatures compared to carnivores. 



The isotope ratios in Australopithecus enamel specimens looked much more like the ratios found in the herbivore group, suggesting that the hominins had a limited meat intake.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-humans-did-not-have-a-meat-based-diet">Early humans did not have a meat-based diet</h2>



Legumes, seeds, and insects could still have been on the menu. Some <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2001/01/17/science/tools-suggest-early-human-termite-diet.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experts</a> think termites might have been an occasional source of protein. But the <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/news/2022/january/human-ancestor-homo-erectus-probably-wasnt-carnivore-we-thought.html?utm_source=chatgpt.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scientists</a> noted that nothing in the results indicates frequent or heavy hunting of mammals.&nbsp;



The findings fit with other archaeological evidence that hasn’t yet confirmed systematic meat consumption among early hominins at this period in time.



“Our method opens up exciting possibilities for understanding human evolution,” said <a href="https://www.mpic.de/4493238/alfredo-martinez-garcia" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Martínez-García</a>, a researcher at the Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, who <a href="https://www.mpg.de/17039594/annual-report-2020.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emphasized</a> the significance of this approach.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greater-context-in-hominin-evolution">Greater context in hominin evolution</h2>



Australopithecus is a well-known genus of early hominins that walked upright and lived in parts of Africa between roughly 4 and 2 million years ago.



<a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/australopithecus-afarensis-lucy-species.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lucy</a>, discovered in 1974, is the most famous example of these ancient relatives. They had smaller brains than modern humans but were already showing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-hunter-gatherer-ancestors-did-much-more-gathering-than-hunting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">certain traits</a> that set them apart from other primates, such as upright posture.&nbsp;



Speculations about their eating habits have varied, with some thinking they might have combined plant foods with regular meat. This new evidence challenges that notion for at least one population of Australopithecus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-it-matters">Why it matters</h2>



Trying to unravel hominin diets helps anthropologists figure out what shaped our bodies and minds. Did meat-eating diets truly set the stage for rapid growth in brain volume and sophisticated tools?



Or were these changes linked to other factors like social cooperation, broader food choices, or climatic shifts? 



Understanding that australopithecines didn’t rely heavily on meat raises fresh questions about what triggered key developments in our lineage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-reveal-plant-based-diet-not-meat">Fossils reveal plant-based diet, not meat</h2>



Sterkfontein has been a hotbed of discoveries for nearly a century. 



Excavations at this <a href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/915" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNESCO World Heritage Site</a> have produced many fossil finds, including some of the earliest evidence of bipedal hominins. Even after so many decades, the site continues to surprise.



“The research provides clear evidence that its diet did not contain significant amounts of meat,” said <a href="https://www.stonybrook.edu/commcms/anthropology/faculty-and-staff/stratford-d.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Dominic Stratford</a>, Director of Research at the Sterkfontein Caves. 



Studies of early hominin diets will keep evolving as technology improves. Analyzing tooth enamel for nitrogen might open a doorway to insights about other ancient species, and shed light on their place in the food chain.



That, in turn, informs the story of our family tree.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adq7315" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Meat wasn't on the menu for our ancient hominin ancestors

It’s widely believed that eating animal products gave early human...

Fear shapes human behavior in profound ways, influencing our reactions and survival responses. While some fears are innate, others can be unlearned through experience, a process that has long intrigued neuroscientists. 



Now, researchers have identified a crucial brain pathway that helps suppress fear, and sheds new light on how we adapt to perceived threats.



The findings could pave the way for innovative treatments for fear-related disorders such as phobias, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).



The study, conducted by scientists at the Sainsbury Wellcome Centre (<a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/gatsby/about/sainsbury-wellcome-centre" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SWC</a>) at UCL, unravels the neural mechanisms behind fear suppression, and offers a fresh perspective on the role of learning, memory, and emotional regulation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-brain-helps-us-unlearn-fear">The brain helps us unlearn fear</h2>



Led by Dr. Sara Mederos and Professor Sonja Hofer, the research team investigated how we unlearn fear.



"Humans are born with instinctive fear reactions, such as responses to loud noises or fast-approaching objects," said Dr. Mederos.



"However, we can override these instinctive responses through experience - like children learning to enjoy fireworks rather than fear their loud bangs. We wanted to understand the brain mechanisms that underlie such forms of learning."



The researchers employed a novel experimental approach using mice. They observed that when presented with a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primal-instincts-kick-in-when-a-threat-appears-too-close/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">perceived threat</a> - an overhead expanding shadow that mimicked an aerial predator - the mice initially sought shelter.



Over time, however, they learned to remain calm, giving the researchers a model for studying how we suppress our fear responses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-the-brain-s-fear-pathway">Decoding the brain's fear pathway</h2>



Expanding on their previous findings, the team studied the ventrolateral geniculate nucleus (vLGN), a brain region that can suppress fear responses when active. They also explored its role in tracking past experiences of threats.



Two significant findings emerged. First, particular regions of the visual cortex were essential for learning. Second, the vLGN stored the memories that were formed during this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/zombie-neurons-shed-new-light-on-learning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">learning process</a>.



“We found that animals failed to learn to suppress their fear responses when specific cortical visual areas were inactivated. However, once the animals had already learned to stop escaping, the cerebral cortex was no longer necessary,” explained Dr. Mederos.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-perspective-on-learning-and-memory">New perspective on learning and memory</h2>



These discoveries challenge conventional beliefs about learning and memory. 



"While the cerebral cortex has long been considered the brain's primary center for learning, memory and behavioral flexibility, we found the subcortical vLGN, and not the visual cortex, actually stores these crucial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-reboots-the-brain-making-room-for-new-memories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memories</a>," said Professor Hofer.



"This neural pathway can provide a link between cognitive neocortical processes and ‘hard-wired’ brainstem-mediated behaviors, enabling animals to adapt instinctive behaviors.”



The team also revealed the cellular and molecular mechanisms behind this process. Learning occurs through increased neural activity in certain vLGN neurons, and is prompted by the release of endocannabinoids, which are known to regulate mood and memory. 



This leads to heightened activity in this brain area when encountering a visual threat, thereby suppressing fear responses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-and-future-directions">Implications and future directions</h2>



The value of these findings could reach far beyond the laboratory. 



"Our findings could also help advance our understanding of what is going wrong in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-human-brain-decides-which-memories-to-remember/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain</a> when fear response regulation is impaired in conditions such as phobias, anxiety and PTSD," said Professor Hofer.



"While instinctive fear reactions to predators may be less relevant for modern humans, the brain pathway we discovered exists in humans too."



Next, the team will collaborate with clinical researchers to further explore these brain circuits in humans. The goal is to create new, targeted treatments for maladaptive fear responses and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breakthrough-discovery-social-anxiety-can-be-targeted-in-the-gut/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anxiety</a> disorders. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-research-and-treatment">Bridging research and treatment</h2>



The discovery of this fear-regulating brain pathway could have profound implications for mental health treatment. 



By understanding how the brain suppresses instinctive fear responses, researchers may be able to develop new therapies for individuals struggling with fear-based disorders.



Traditional treatments, such as exposure therapy and cognitive behavioral therapy, rely on retraining the brain to respond differently to fear-inducing stimuli. 



However, targeting the vLGN directly could offer a more precise approach that leads to faster and more effective treatments.



As scientists continue to map the brain’s intricate fear circuitry, the hope is that these insights will translate into breakthroughs in mental health care, offering relief to millions affected by excessive or maladaptive fear responses.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adr2247" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



Image Credit: Sainsbury Wellcome Centre



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Brain pathway discovered that suppresses fear

Fear shapes human behavior in profound ways, influencing our reactions...

Quantum computing has moved from academic circles to everyday tech discussions. Many people wonder if these futuristic machines will soon handle tasks that push the limits of standard processors.



This question got a boost from Google, which shared an optimistic <a href="https://www.reuters.com/technology/google-says-commercial-quantum-computing-applications-arriving-within-five-years-2025-02-05/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">timeline</a> that contrasts with more cautious forecasts. 



<a href="https://research.google/people/hartmutneven/?&amp;type=google" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hartmut Neven</a> of Google Quantum AI has drawn attention to the possibility of commercial quantum <a href="https://aws.amazon.com/what-is/quantum-computing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">computing</a> breakthroughs sooner than expected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-quantum-computing-different">What makes quantum computing different</h2>



Classical computers operate by processing data one step at a time. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/doped-diamonds-discovery-may-reshape-quantum-computing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Quantum systems</a> work with <a href="https://www.ibm.com/think/topics/qubit" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">qubits</a>, which can encode multiple values at once and promise exponential increases in computing power.



This difference matters for certain complex problems, especially in materials science and drug discovery. 



Designing new molecules or screening vast chemical spaces often strains current hardware, leaving researchers eager for a system that can test scenarios with staggering depth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-five-year-bet">The five-year bet</h2>



"We’re optimistic that within five years we’ll see real-world applications that are possible only on quantum computers," Hartmut Neven said in a statement.



Some research groups see a path to better <a href="https://www.cisa.gov/topics/cybersecurity-best-practices" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cybersecurity</a> tools and energy-efficient processes if <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-computer-can-instantly-execute-a-task-that-would-normally-take-47-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum</a> machines achieve the speed and scale predicted by Google. 



Industry watchers note that large companies and governments have been investing heavily to maintain a competitive edge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-others-disagree">Why others disagree</h2>



Not everyone buys the five-year horizon. "If you kind of said 15 years... that'd probably be on the early side," said <a href="https://nvidianews.nvidia.com/bios/jensen-huang" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jensen Huang</a>, CEO of Nvidia, at an <a href="https://www.reuters.com/technology/quantum-computing-stocks-take-hit-nvidia-ceo-predicts-long-road-ahead-2025-01-08/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">event</a> in January.



Some experts prefer a longer timeline, suggesting that building error-free <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ultra-cold-molecules-poised-to-revolutionize-quantum-computing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum systems</a> will remain an uphill climb. Uncertain hardware designs and unpredictable funding cycles contribute to the skepticism.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practical-impacts-of-quantum-computing">Practical impacts of quantum computing</h2>



Companies hoping to create new batteries for electric cars stand to benefit. 



Analysts believe advanced quantum processors could help test more efficient designs that store energy for longer drives without guesswork.



Scientists in drug discovery picture a faster way to simulate molecular interactions. That could save years of lab work and cut costs for patients who need new treatments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fresh-approach-to-simulation">Fresh approach to simulation</h2>



A team of Google scientists has outlined a new approach that centers on <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-019-1666-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum simulation</a>. Their paper highlights techniques for handling complex interactions in ways classical hardware struggles to manage.



Many researchers see simulation-based breakthroughs as an essential step. The success of these methods might pave the way for tasks like predicting chemical reactions with higher accuracy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-concerns-over-cybersecurity">Concerns over cybersecurity</h2>



Banks and government agencies pay close attention to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/building-quantum-computers-just-got-easier-with-new-technique/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum progress</a>. They know that the algorithms guarding financial data might be at risk once quantum computers crack encryption that is safe against classical machines.



Scientists are exploring encryption standards labeled post-quantum to counter that risk. These novel methods aim to protect sensitive information if quantum computing power ramps up faster than expected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-quantum-computing-matter">Why does quantum computing matter?</h2>



The conversation around quantum computing sometimes recalls how artificial intelligence started as an academic pursuit and then exploded in widespread use. 



ChatGPT changed the perception of AI, and many wonder if a similar leap could happen with quantum machines.



Some business leaders worry about unpredictable timeframes. They fear missing out on a major transition if they dismiss quantum tools too soon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hardware-hurdles">Hardware hurdles</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/schrodingers-cat-put-into-silicon-chip-may-be-holy-grail-for-error-proof-quantum-computing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Quantum</a> chips are notoriously fragile. Each qubit needs a carefully controlled environment to maintain a delicate state, which requires specialized facilities and constant monitoring.



Engineers are refining designs to reduce error rates. They look to scale up qubits without losing the stability needed for correct results.



Governments in the United States, China, and Europe have invested large sums to lead in quantum technology. Researchers hope quantum computing projects will produce robust platforms and train a new generation of experts.



Startups have also joined the race by focusing on software or specialized hardware. Some work on smaller quantum processors that can handle targeted tasks, offering a stepping stone to bigger platforms later.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-managing-expectations">Managing expectations</h2>



Skeptics caution that early quantum machines may not instantly solve big problems. Real-world results could arrive in stages, as incremental improvements accumulate.



Yet the possibilities continue to spark interest from industries that crave faster computations. A single breakthrough in hardware stability could trigger a flurry of practical demos.



Google’s timeline points to a milestone that many see as both thrilling and uncertain. It sets a marker for teams worldwide to push each other in a race that is as much about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/code-breaking-encryption-quantum-computers-takes-big-step-closer-to-becoming-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">engineering</a> as scientific discovery.



Big announcements often fuel excitement and speculation. For now, the path remains challenging, but the promise of quantum computing keeps drawing top minds to the lab.



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Google claims commercial quantum computing is just five years away

Quantum computing has moved from academic circles to everyday tech...

An rare discovery in northern Luxembourg has given historians a fresh glimpse into the final years of the Western Roman Empire. Archaeologists have uncovered a hoard of gold coins dating back to the late fourth and early fifth centuries, buried near the village of Holzthum.



The find includes coins with depictions of nine different emperors, but three coins stand out - each bearing the face of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Eugenius-Bulgaris" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eugenius</a>, a little-known ruler whose brief reign ended in bloodshed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-surprising-start">A surprising start</h2>



The excavation began in 2019 after metal detectorists stumbled upon a single gold coin. The <a href="https://guichet.public.lu/en/citoyens/organismes/organismes_citoyens/inra.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Institute for Archaeological Research</a> in Luxembourg soon launched an official investigation, which led to a four-year dig.



The site, however, was dangerous. Unexploded ordnance from World War II littered the ground, requiring archaeologists to work with Luxembourg’s <a href="https://today.rtl.lu/news/luxembourg/a/1182428.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Army Bomb Disposal Service</a>. Each step was taken carefully to ensure both safety and preservation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-hidden-wealth-of-rome">The hidden wealth of Rome</h2>



“This represents a huge amount of personal wealth for the individual or group who collected these coins,” said historian <a href="https://www.tcd.ie/classics/people/rebecca-usherwood.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rebecca Usherwood</a> of <a href="https://www.tcd.ie/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Trinity College Dublin</a>. In ancient times, gold coins were not everyday currency. Most citizens would never have held a single solidus, let alone an entire hoard.



Each coin is a <a href="https://www.fellows.co.uk/blog/monies-medals-militaria/2024/10/24/solidus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solidus</a>, a high-value Roman gold piece first introduced in the fourth century. Solidi were essential for trade, military payments, and political agreements, and they served as both currency and propaganda.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-emperor-no-one-remembers">The emperor no one remembers</h2>



Among the coins, three bear the image of Eugenius, a short-lived emperor who ruled the Western Roman Empire from 392 to 394 AD. “His coins are especially rare because his time in power was so short,” explained historian <a href="https://lda-lsa.academia.edu/MPileki%C4%87" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marjanko Pilekić</a>.



Eugenius was an unusual choice for emperor, having started his career as a professor of rhetoric. He was installed as a ruler by military leaders after the suspicious death of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Valentinian-II" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Valentinian II</a>, but his reign was never recognized by the Eastern Roman emperor <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Theodosius-I" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Theodosius I</a>.



A violent battle followed. In 394 AD, Theodosius I crushed Eugenius’ forces at the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Battle-of-Frigidus-River" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Battle of Frigidus</a>, which led to the execution of Eugenius. With his defeat, the Western Roman Empire fell further under the control of the East.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-bury-the-coins">Why bury the coins?</h2>



The presence of these coins in Luxembourg raises new questions. Some researchers believe they were hidden during a time of crisis. 



In the late fourth century, Rome’s hold over its territories was crumbling, and invasions from <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-fall-of-the-roman-empire-9780195325416" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Germanic tribes</a> made many areas unsafe.



“It’s likely they died before they could recover their treasure,” said Usherwood, suggesting that whoever buried the hoard may have been fleeing or caught in battle. 



Similar hidden stashes from this period have been found across Europe, often linked to political instability and war.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-fortress-lost-to-time">A fortress lost to time</h2>



The excavation also revealed traces of a <a href="https://saxonhistory.co.uk/FORMS-Page-Builder.php?Pg=roman_fortification_types" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">burgus</a>, a type of Roman military tower built to guard borders. These structures were crucial to the empire’s defense, especially in regions that were vulnerable to attack.



Finding a hoard like this at a military site suggests it may have belonged to a high-ranking official. Soldiers and officers were often paid in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fools-gold-may-be-a-valuable-source-of-lithium/">gold</a> solidi, making it possible that this stash was the savings of an elite Roman commander.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-next-steps">The next steps</h2>



“This is a major archaeological discovery, as it is extremely rare to be able to study an ancient monetary deposit in its entirety in its archaeological context,” they said in an official statement from the <a href="https://spinkbooks.com/products/roman-imperial-coinage-vol-viii-the-family-of-constantine-i-by-kent-j-p-c-and-sutherland-c-h-v" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Institute for Archaeological Research</a> in Luxembourg.



The coins are now being analyzed in a lab, where experts will determine their origin and how they fit into the broader picture of Roman economics and warfare. 



Researchers will also look for chemical traces on the coins that could reveal where the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supergiant-gold-deposit-find-claims-to-be-the-worlds-largest-discovery-ever/">gold was mined</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rewriting-history">Rewriting history</h2>



Every archaeological discovery adds a new piece to the puzzle of the past. This hoard is not just about gold - it’s about power, politics, and survival during one of the most chaotic times in Roman history.



Once studies are complete, these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flipping-a-coin-is-not-a-50-50-random-toss-up-as-most-people-think/">coins</a> will likely be put on public display. Their value, both in money and historical insight, ensures they will not be forgotten.



Details of this discovery were published in the online journal <a href="https://new.coinsweekly.com/news-en/largest-hoard-of-ancient-gold-coins-discovered-in-luxembourg/">CoinsWeekly</a>.



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Archaeologists discover 141 ancient gold coins, some from a little-known Roman emperor

An rare discovery in northern Luxembourg has given historians a...

People everywhere want to extend their healthy years, yet many remain unaware that their blood type could play a part in the pace of aging. The results of a new study suggest that individuals with <a href="https://www.blood.co.uk/why-give-blood/blood-types/b-positive-blood-type/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">blood group B</a> may experience a slower aging process, sparking plenty of questions about what sets this group apart.



<a href="https://med.stanford.edu/profiles/tony-wyss-coray" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tony Wyss-Coray</a> from Stanford University has spent years exploring these biological mysteries with a keen eye on the role that blood factors play in overall vitality. 



His research highlights how blood can provide important clues about our body's wear and tear as we grow older.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-blood-group-b">Understanding blood group B</h2>



Blood types are determined by specific markers on red blood cells and by the antibodies that circulate in our bloodstream. In the <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/abo-blood-group-system" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ABO blood group system</a>, people with group B have the B antigen on their red blood cells and produce antibodies against the A antigen.



Only around 10% of the global population falls into this category. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21173130/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers</a> have examined whether this unique marker might contribute to a more efficient handling of metabolic changes, which could help these individuals age more slowly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-longevity-factors">Longevity factors</h2>



Decades ago, scientists began investigating the connection between blood types and lifespan.&nbsp;



“Our findings suggest that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/could-blood-type-determine-your-stroke-risk/">blood type B</a> might be associated with exceptional longevity,” concluded Shimizu and colleagues, from Tokyo, in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0531556504002463">2004</a>. Experts have looked deeper into why this group might outlast others.



Some point to better cellular repair and regeneration mechanisms. Others suggest that their bodies handle metabolic stress more smoothly, which might shield them against certain age-related health problems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-possible-downsides">Possible downsides</h2>



Scientists note that people with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-genetic-mutation-has-given-rise-to-a-new-blood-group-mal-system/">blood group</a> B are not immune to health risks. Researchers have identified a slightly higher likelihood of cardiovascular concerns among these individuals. 



Good eating habits, regular exercise, and stress management can lower this vulnerability.



This group also has a reputation for higher emotional sensitivity, and some say they need a strong support system in order to maintain good mental health. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-organ-aging-insights">Organ aging insights</h2>



Growing <a href="https://newsroom.uw.edu/news-releases/scientists-unravel-mystery-of-uneven-aging-in-the-body?utm_source=chatgpt.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence</a> points to aging as an uneven process in different parts of the body. Some organs can deteriorate faster than others, which raises the spectre of illness, even if a person seems healthy on the outside.



One large study examined more than 5,000 volunteers to gauge the biological age of 11 organs by checking levels of over 4,000 proteins in the bloodstream. 



This <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39117878/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a> showed that roughly 20% of the population experiences accelerated aging in at least one organ.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-based-approach">Blood-based approach</h2>



Existing methods often measure epigenetic changes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dna-damage-can-persist-for-years-increasing-cancer-risks/">DNA</a> to predict overall aging. That typically requires tissue samples, which are tricky to collect from every organ. 



Blood, however, is more accessible and can offer a snapshot of the levels of proteins linked to various internal systems.



Machine learning tools sort through thousands of these proteins. They then match levels of specific proteins to individual organs, revealing which parts might be aging faster than expected. 



This information could be used to create personalized strategies for slowing down deterioration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practical-considerations">Practical considerations</h2>



The thought of identifying an aging organ before serious symptoms appear is appealing, yet it raises important questions. 



Knowing you have a high risk of kidney or heart disease might inspire extra vigilance, but it can also stir up anxiety if no direct cure exists.



Experts recommend balancing that knowledge with preventive steps. For people with blood group B, a careful check on cardiovascular health may be a good idea, in addition to managing stress levels that might influence emotional well-being.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-the-numbers">Beyond the numbers</h2>



While statistics spark our interest, everyday habits usually determine how these findings play out. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-secret-ingredient-to-healthy-aging-your-midlife-diet/">Maintaining a good diet</a>, staying active, getting enough rest, and nurturing strong relationships all help stabilize physical and emotional health.



Researchers encourage anyone curious about their aging process to consider all possible factors. Blood type B may help explain certain traits, but it is not the only player in this puzzle.



Access to advanced blood-based testing for all still lies down the road. If it becomes more common, people may be able to spot small red flags for particular organs and take action sooner.



Wyss-Coray's work shows that a simple blood draw can pull back the curtain on hidden changes in different parts of the body. 



This could pave the way for more focused care, especially for folks eager to maintain a high quality of life as they grow older.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15501027/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Experimental Gerontology</a>.



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People with this blood group age more slowly, according to new research

People everywhere want to extend their healthy years, yet many...

Social media has been buzzing with talk about a strange formation on Mars that looks like a giant square in the dusty terrain. The snapshot came from the Mars Global Surveyor (<a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/mars-global-surveyor/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MGS</a>), a mission that captured thousands of images from 1997 until its final transmission in 2006.



Commentators such as <a href="https://x.com/elonmusk/status/1885572228709851366?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw%7Ctwcamp%5Etweetembed%7Ctwterm%5E1885572228709851366%7Ctwgr%5E6e6e2b26f6232825775b758bfe3891f36c67a0a4%7Ctwcon%5Es1_c10&amp;ref_url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iflscience.com%2Fwhy-is-everyone-talking-about-the-square-structure-captured-on-mars-77874" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Elon Musk</a> and popular podcaster <a href="https://x.com/elonmusk/status/1885572228709851366?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw%7Ctwcamp%5Etweetembed%7Ctwterm%5E1885572228709851366%7Ctwgr%5E6e6e2b26f6232825775b758bfe3891f36c67a0a4%7Ctwcon%5Es1_c10&amp;ref_url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iflscience.com%2Fwhy-is-everyone-talking-about-the-square-structure-captured-on-mars-77874" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Joe Rogan</a> have stirred up even more curiosity by sharing a cropped version online. Many are asking if a neat, geometric form could appear by chance or if something else is going on.



<a href="https://gufaculty360.georgetown.edu/s/contact/00336000014TIFDAA4/sarah-johnson" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Sarah Johnson</a>, a planetary geologist at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (<a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JPL</a>), points to geological processes as the likely cause of these intriguing shapes.



She says that Martian landscapes often reveal <a href="https://viewer.mars.asu.edu/planetview/inst/moc/E1000462#T=2&amp;P=E1000462" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">features that appear artificial at first glance</a>, but they usually have natural explanations tied to erosion or volcanic activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-patterns-in-the-mars-square-formation">Patterns in the Mars square formation</h2>



Countless observers experience <a href="https://www.artsandmindlab.org/pareidolia-research/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pareidolia</a>, where the human brain identifies familiar objects in random images. 



<a href="https://carlsagan.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Carl Sagan</a> described this phenomenon in <a href="https://www.loc.gov/item/cosmos000005" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Demon-Haunted World</a>, noting our ancestors were hardwired to spot potential threats quickly.



This tendency leads us to see patterns like faces, squares, or symbols in shadowy and jagged rocks. It explains why everyday photos from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-year-on-mars-avalanches-icy-explosions-and-the-arrival-of-spring/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a> sometimes go viral when they resemble objects from life on Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-nod-to-history">A nod to history</h2>



Interest in Martian life dates back to the late 1800s. <a href="https://educationalevidence.com/en/mars-and-schiaparellis-canals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Giovanni Schiaparelli’s detailed sketches</a> introduced the world to the mysterious “canali” on the Red Planet.



<a href="https://academic.oup.com/book/32739/chapter-abstract/272790468?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Percival Lowell</a> championed the idea that these were canals built by an advanced society. 



“It is a direct sequitur from this that the planet is at present the abode of intelligent constructive life,” he said as reported by the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/30/insider/life-on-mars-you-read-it-here-first.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York Times</a> in 1907.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-nature-creates-squares-on-mars">How nature creates squares on Mars</h2>



Geological forces on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-captured-in-true-color-like-youve-never-seen-the-red-planet-before/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a> shape rocks into remarkable angles. Wind erosion, volcanic flows, and temperature changes can produce boundaries that appear man-made.



Similar patterns exist on Earth, such as the <a href="https://www.bgs.ac.uk/discovering-geology/maps-and-resources/office-geology/the-giants-causeway-and-causeway-coast/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">basalt formations</a> in Northern Ireland. Nobody believes those columns were built by extraterrestrials, yet they look deceptively precise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-image-stands-out">Why this image stands out</h2>



Reddit users seized on the square outline in the MGS photo and suggested it might be evidence of alien construction. The online frenzy grew once public figures began discussing it, prompting more people to examine the image.



Elon Musk’s <a href="https://x.com/elonmusk/status/1885572228709851366?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw%7Ctwcamp%5Etweetembed%7Ctwterm%5E1885572228709851366%7Ctwgr%5E6e6e2b26f6232825775b758bfe3891f36c67a0a4%7Ctwcon%5Es1_c10&amp;ref_url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iflscience.com%2Fwhy-is-everyone-talking-about-the-square-structure-captured-on-mars-77874" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">comment</a>, “We should send astronauts to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-insight-mro-spacecraft-teamed-up-with-ai-to-find-a-fresh-impact-crater/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a> to investigate,” gave the topic an extra boost of credibility. Space enthusiasts have always championed a crewed mission, though actual timelines remain uncertain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-from-mgs">Learning from MGS</h2>



The <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/mars-global-surveyor/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars Global Surveyor</a> operated for nearly a decade, mapping the planet’s surface and revealing weather patterns. Its <a href="https://www.msss.com/all_projects/mgs-mars-orbiter-camera.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars Orbiter Camera</a> captured high-resolution images that continue to fascinate researchers.



These images showed layered outcrops, gullies that hinted at past water activity, and features that sparked debate about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/martian-phenomenon-causes-spectacular-glowing-clouds-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian</a> geology. 



Scientists analyzed subtle changes over time, building a clearer picture of the planet’s evolving surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-caution-in-exploration">Caution in exploration</h2>



Experts maintain that strange-looking formations warrant close study but caution against immediate leaps to alien involvement. Claims of artificial structures require rigorous data to rule out simpler explanations.



Another example is the infamous “<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cydonia_(Mars)" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Face on Mars</a>,” which turned out to be a naturally eroded mesa. Higher-resolution images from later missions revealed ordinary topography hidden by shadows.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-wonder-and-skepticism">Balancing wonder and skepticism</h2>



Curiosity drives space exploration and pushes technology forward. Without a sense of wonder, breakthroughs in planetary science might stall.



At the same time, scientists look for patterns based on evidence. They strive to confirm or dismiss new hypotheses through reproducible methods, peer review, and fresh data.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solving-the-mars-square-formation-mystery">Solving the Mars square formation mystery</h2>



Some believe sending humans to Mars would clarify whether odd shapes like the square formation are geological quirks or something else. 



However, planning a safe crewed mission involves huge costs, technical challenges, and years of preparation.



Most researchers argue that advanced rovers and orbiters can still shed light on such mysteries. Many of these instruments are equipped with cameras and spectrometers that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wave-ripples-discovered-mars-surface-indicate-liquid-water-present-4-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study rock composition</a>, offering vital clues about potential habitats or unexplained features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-search-for-ancient-civilizations">Search for ancient civilizations</h2>



Enthusiasts hold out hope that one day a photograph will confirm remnants of a past civilization. Others see these images as reminders that our universe is filled with surprises that encourage us to keep asking questions.



Modern astronomy benefits from this mix of awe and scrutiny. Each new discovery sparks debates that broaden our understanding and inspire the next wave of missions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-of-martian-travel">Challenges of Martian travel</h2>



Some visionaries picture <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-seeks-a-faster-way-to-bring-mars-samples-to-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian</a> tourism in the future, where visitors could walk up to these sites and see if they hold any secrets. 



Others caution that the journey alone presents challenges like cosmic radiation, limited resources, and immense travel times.



Apollo missions taught researchers how complex it is to send <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astronauts-kidneys-may-not-survive-a-roundtrip-to-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humans beyond Earth</a>. Mars would require even more advanced technologies and life support systems capable of sustaining crews during a trip that could last several months each way.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-square-formations-on-mars">Future of square formations on Mars</h2>



Despite these hurdles, the dream of planting footprints on Mars keeps growing, thanks to the likes of Musk and other pioneers. They believe that direct human exploration will resolve mysteries faster than robotic missions ever could.



In the meantime, orbiters and rovers continue to deliver valuable data. For many scientists, patience and methodical analysis are the smartest paths to uncovering genuine discoveries.



Every image from Mars hints at a story waiting to be told, though not every rock shape is a clue to alien life. This square formation on Mars could be another case of the mind's readiness to see design where mere geology exists.



The full image from the Mars Orbiter Camera (MOC) <a href="https://viewer.mars.asu.edu/planetview/inst/moc/E1000462#T=2&amp;P=E1000462" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">can be found here...</a>



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Square-shaped formation found on Mars sparks calls for closer study

Social media has been buzzing with talk about a strange...

The human brain is one of the most complex structures in nature, setting our species apart from all others. Understanding how it evolved remains one of the most fascinating questions in science. 



A new study from Yale University offers fresh insights into this mystery by examining specific genetic changes that influenced brain development.



By studying a class of genetic switches known as human accelerated regions (HARs), researchers have uncovered how these sequences fine-tune gene expression. 



The findings challenge previous assumptions and reveal a more intricate process at play.



This research not only deepens knowledge about human evolution but also sheds light on conditions linked to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-genes-to-genius-what-makes-the-human-brain-unique/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain function</a>, such as autism and schizophrenia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-human-accelerated-regions">Role of human accelerated regions</h2>



HARs are sections of DNA that evolved rapidly in humans compared to other species. They regulate gene activity by determining when, where, and how much a gene is expressed. 



Scientists have long suspected that HARs played a crucial role in shaping the human brain, but their exact influence remained unclear.



Earlier research suggested that HARs might control different genes in humans than they do in chimpanzees, our closest primate relatives. The new study, however, paints a different picture. 



Instead of altering which genes are controlled, HARs appear to adjust the activity of existing genes, influencing how neurons form, grow, and communicate. 



This subtle yet powerful mechanism likely contributed to the evolution of uniquely human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-brain-literally-changes-based-on-daily-activities-and-lifestyle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive abilities</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-interactions-in-the-human-brain">Genetic interactions in the human brain</h2>



To understand the effects of HARs, the research team used cutting-edge methods to study their interactions with genes and neural stem cells. 



These advanced techniques allowed them to identify gene targets for nearly all HARs, marking a major step forward in evolutionary genetics.



The study was led by James Noonan, the Albert E. Kent Professor of Genetics at the <a href="https://medicine.yale.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale School of Medicine</a>.



"The results reveal that HARs largely regulate the same genes in both species, particularly those involved in brain development," Noonan explained.



"However, HARs adjust gene expression levels differently in humans, suggesting that evolutionary changes to brain function emerged not by reinventing genetic pathways but by modifying their output."



By refining gene expression rather than creating entirely new pathways, evolution shaped the brain’s function in a precise and efficient manner. This discovery challenges long-held theories and opens up new avenues for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-brains-create-three-copies-of-every-memory-we-make/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-gene-targets">Identifying gene targets</h2>



Understanding which genes are influenced by HARs is crucial for decoding their role in evolution. 



Previously, scientists had only been able to identify gene targets for a small fraction of HARs - ranging from 7 to 21 percent. This limited knowledge left many questions unanswered.



The challenge stemmed from technological constraints. Earlier studies relied on less precise methods, making it difficult to determine which genes are actually controlled by human accelerated regions.



Some estimates even included genes that might not have been targets at all. Without accurate data, researchers could only speculate about HARs’ true impact on brain development.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-the-human-brain">Mapping the human brain</h2>



To overcome these challenges, the Yale team applied an innovative technique that allowed them to map the genome in three dimensions. 



This approach enabled them to track how HARs interact with genes in human and chimpanzee <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-the-speed-at-which-the-brain-processes-information/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neural</a> stem cells. 



As a result, they were able to identify gene targets for almost 90% of all HARs—a significant breakthrough in the field.



"Having a more complete picture now opens up a vast new landscape of things scientists can do," noted Atreyo Pal, a graduate student in genetics at Yale and first author of the study.



By identifying more HAR gene targets, scientists can now explore how these genetic elements shaped brain evolution in greater detail. 



This progress also has implications beyond evolutionary biology, offering potential insights into neurological conditions linked to HARs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-brain-development-and-mental-health">Early brain development and mental health</h2>



Many of the genes regulated by HARs are active during early brain development. They influence the formation of neurons, guide their growth, and ensure proper communication between brain cells. 



These functions are critical for shaping cognitive abilities, memory, and overall brain function.



Some HAR-regulated genes are also linked to neurological conditions such as autism and schizophrenia. 



This connection suggests that while HARs played a key role in human brain evolution, they may have also contributed to vulnerabilities in mental health.



Understanding these links could provide new insights into the biological basis of such disorders.



"Our findings also show that HAR gene targets are expressed in particular cell types in the developing human brain, including cell types that may have contributed to the increased size of our brain," Pal elaborated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-avenues-for-human-brain-research">New avenues for human brain research</h2>



The discovery of additional HAR gene targets marks a turning point in the study of human evolution. 



Scientists now have a clearer picture of how genetic changes influenced brain development, paving the way for further research into cognitive function and neurological disorders.



"Before, we didn't know what many of the genes that HARs controlled were or what their biological functions were. We didn't have the full picture. Now, this opens up many new avenues for us to understand how HARs contributed to the evolution of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-time-and-space-interact-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain</a>," noted Noonan.



With new tools and expanded knowledge, researchers are equipped to explore deeper questions about human intelligence, brain function, and the genetic forces that shaped our species.



This study represents a major step forward in unraveling the genetic blueprint that made us uniquely human.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell/abstract/S0092-8674(25)00036-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell</a>.



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Subtle DNA changes shaped human brain evolution

The human brain is one of the most complex structures...

Have you ever wondered about the ancient origins of the picturesque Great Lakes in North America? A recent study on ancient hotspots may completely change our understanding of how these lakes formed.



The research delves deep beneath the Earth's surface, uncovering a fascinating history in which a geographic hotspot may have played a key role in shaping the Great Lakes.



If confirmed, this discovery could reshape how we perceive not just these lakes, but the geological history of North America itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-story-of-the-great-lakes">The story of the Great Lakes </h2>



The research was conducted at the <a href="https://uh.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Houston</a>, where scientists came across an unexpected protagonist in the story of the Great Lakes. 



The Cape Verde hotspot, currently located under the island nation in the Central Atlantic Ocean, is suggested to be the main player in designing the Great Lakes.



"We saw something strange in this area,” said Aibing Li, a UH seismologist and co-author of the study. “Before, people thought the Great Lakes were formed during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-the-ice-age-can-tell-us-about-future-el-nino-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice age</a>. Our study shows it started from the deep mantle.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-effects-of-an-ancient-hotspot">The effects of an ancient hotspot</h2>



The revelations from the study imply a journey that began hundreds of millions of years ago, long before the supercontinent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/australia-north-america-supercontinent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pangaea</a> began to drift apart. 



As North America split from this supercontinent and moved above the Cape Verde hotspot, it traversed the area where the Great Lakes currently reside.



Hotspots are intriguing geophysical phenomena, essentially plumes of hot material rising from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-volcanic-hotspots-are-all-connected-to-earths-interior-mantle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's mantle</a>.



When interacting with the Earth's surface, they can manifest as volcanoes. However, the effects of an ancient hotspot once housed in a continent can be harder to detect. 



“When the hotspot was in the continent, it behaved differently from when they were in the ocean,” said Li. “But if the hotspot was in the continent, the lithosphere (the rigid, outermost layer of Earth) is very thick - we don’t see the impact.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-forces-beneath-earth-s-crust">Hidden forces beneath Earth's crust </h2>



The team used a seismic velocity anisotropy model in northeastern America, which encompassed the eastern part of the Great Lakes region. They discovered an anomaly beneath the crust - earthquake waves traveling at different speeds horizontally and vertically.



Initially, the researchers did not consider a hotspot to be involved. However, closer examination of plate movements revealed that the Cape Verde hotspot had once been positioned under the modern-day Great Lakes' location, dating back 200 to 300 million years ago.



“My colleague showed me a video of hotspots and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-earth-tectonic-plates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plate movement</a>. We saw the Cape Verde hotspot was right where the Great Lakes were for a pretty long time,” said Li.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rewriting-the-origin-of-lakes">Rewriting the origin of lakes</h2>



This discovery sheds new light on the forces that shaped the Great Lakes and, conceivably, other lakes or land masses around North America.



"This is a new idea, a change of the notion that lakes are formed more recently due to processes near the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-on-earth-may-have-first-sparked-in-shallow-soda-lakes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surface</a>,” noted the researchers.



This new theory also raises interesting questions about the dynamics of hotspot-continent interaction and the possible effects of a hotspot on varied lithosphere types at different depths and surfaces.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-lake-formation">Future research on lake formation</h2>



While this remarkable study challenges long-held assumptions about lake formation, it also paves the way for new questions and research avenues.



Understanding how ancient hotspots interact with thick continental lithospheres could lead to broader insights into Earth’s geological evolution. 



Future studies will likely investigate whether other major lakes and basins, such as those in Africa or Asia, were shaped by similar deep-mantle processes.



Moreover, the study highlights the need for interdisciplinary approaches that combine seismic imaging, plate tectonics, and geochemical analysis to paint a more complete picture of how Earth’s landscapes have evolved over millions of years.



As scientists refine their models and expand their focus to other regions, this research may not only reshape our understanding of the Great Lakes but also redefine the forces that have sculpted our planet’s surface.



The <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024GL110777" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> is&nbsp;published&nbsp;in the journal&nbsp;Geophysical Research Letters.



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How did the Great Lakes form? Surprising new clues have emerged

Have you ever wondered about the ancient origins of the...

What if the key to extraterrestrial life isn’t hidden in the vastness of the cosmos, but in the tiny movements of microbes? The search for life beyond Earth has captivated humanity for generations, fueling both science fiction adventures and serious space exploration.



One intriguing approach is to observe the spontaneous movement of microorganisms - a key indicator of life. When specific chemicals trigger this movement, the phenomenon is known as chemotaxis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alien-life-detection-with-microbes">Alien life detection with microbes</h2>



Researchers in Germany have now developed a simplified method to induce chemotactic movement in some of Earth's smallest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diverse-life-forms-from-800-million-years-ago-redefine-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life forms</a>. Ultimately, learning how microbes move could make the detection of alien life more efficient.



“We tested three types of microbes - two bacteria and one type of archaea - and found that they all moved toward a chemical called L-serine,” said Max Riekeles, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.tu.berlin/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Technical University of Berlin</a>.



“This movement, known as chemotaxis, could be a strong indicator of life and could guide future space missions looking for living organisms on Mars or other planets.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbes-that-defy-extremes">Microbes that defy extremes</h2>



The microorganisms selected for the study are known for their resilience in extreme conditions. 



Bacillus subtilis, highly motile in its spore form, can endure temperatures up to 100°C (212°F). Pseudoalteromonas haloplanktis, isolated from Antarctic waters, thrives between -2.5°C (27.5°F) and 29°C (84.2°F). 



Meanwhile, the archaeon Haloferax volcanii is adapted to the high-salinity environments of the Dead Sea.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/23-new-marine-bacteria-species-discovered-that-influence-global-ocean-cycles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bacteria</a> and archaea are two of the oldest forms of life on Earth, but they move in different ways and evolved motility systems independently from each other,” Riekeles explained. “By testing both groups, we can make life detection methods more reliable for space missions.”



The amino acid L-serine, which has been shown to trigger chemotaxis in various life forms, was used to stimulate movement in the microorganisms. 



Scientists speculate that if extraterrestrial life exists on Mars and shares biochemical similarities with Earth life, Martian microbes could also be attracted to L-serine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simple-method-for-alien-life-detection">Simple method for alien life detection</h2>



The study revealed that L-serine acted as an attractant for all three species. 



“Especially the usage of H. volcanii broadens the scope of potential life forms that can be detected using chemotaxis-based methodologies, even when it is known that some archaea possess chemotactic systems,” Riekeles explained. 



“Since H. volcanii is thriving in extreme salty environments, it could be a good model for the kinds of life we might find on Mars.”



To achieve this, the researchers used a straightforward technique which included a slide with two chambers separated by a thin membrane. The microorganisms were placed on one side, while L-serine was introduced on the other.



“If the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/living-microbes-discovered-in-2-billion-year-old-rocks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbes</a> are alive and able to move, they swim toward the L-serine through the membrane,” Riekeles explained. “This method is easy, affordable, and doesn’t require powerful computers to analyze the results.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-achieving-more-with-fewer-resources">Achieving more with fewer resources </h2>



For this technique to be used on extraterrestrial life-detection missions, however, certain modifications will be necessary.



“Smaller and more robust equipment that can survive the harsh conditions of space travel and a system that can work automatically without human intervention are two of them,” noted the researchers.



Once these challenges are addressed, microbial movement could help uncover life in unexpected corners of the cosmos - perhaps even in the subsurface ocean of Jupiter’s moon Europa.



“This approach could make life detection cheaper and faster, helping future missions achieve more with fewer resources,” concluded Riekeles. “It could be a simple way to look for life on future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-missions-prepare-intense-solar-storms-coming-red-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars missions</a> and a useful addition for direct motility observation techniques.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



The implications of this research extend beyond Mars. If chemotaxis can serve as a universal biosignature, future missions could deploy similar methods to detect life in other extraterrestrial environments. 



Europa, Enceladus, and Titan - with their subsurface oceans and organic-rich chemistry - are prime candidates for exploration.



Chemotaxis-based detection could be particularly useful in missions targeting icy moons, where microbial ecosystems may exist beneath thick ice layers. 



These environments pose challenges for direct observation, making indirect detection methods like chemotaxis especially valuable.



This new approach could also complement existing life-detection techniques, such as atmospheric biosignature analysis and organic molecule detection.



By integrating multiple strategies, scientists can improve the reliability of extraterrestrial life detection and refine future astrobiology missions.



As space agencies plan the next steps in the search for alien life, this simplified test on the movement of microbes could become a key tool in identifying signs of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/key-compound-suggests-that-life-beyond-earth-could-be-common/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life beyond Earth</a>.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/astronomy-and-space-sciences/articles/10.3389/fspas.2024.1490090/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Astronomy and Space Sciences</a>.



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Finding alien life may be as simple as watching microbes move

What if the key to extraterrestrial life isn’t hidden in...

A new study has unveiled the far-reaching ecological impact of wolves and other large carnivores in Yellowstone National Park, demonstrating how the reintroduction of predators can trigger dramatic changes in ecosystem dynamics.&nbsp;



By examining 20 years of data (from 2001 to 2020) collected at 25 riparian sites, the research team discovered a staggering 1,500% increase in willow crown volume along streamside areas in northern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yellowstone</a>.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-return-of-wolves-in-yellowstone-nbsp">The return of wolves in Yellowstone&nbsp;</h2>



This remarkable recovery is attributed to the cascading effects initiated by the restored large carnivore guild, following the return of wolves in 1995–96, and the subsequent reduction in elk populations that had previously overbrowsed the vegetation.



The study, led by William J. Ripple of <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a> and the <a href="https://consbio.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Conservation Biology Institute</a> provides one of the most compelling examples yet of a trophic cascade - a process where predators indirectly influence vegetation by regulating herbivore behavior and abundance.&nbsp;



In this case, the dramatic growth of willows, used as a proxy for aboveground biomass, offers a clear metric of the ecological recovery underway in Yellowstone.



“Our findings emphasize the power of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/apex-predators-can-help-restore-ecosystems-but-not-immediately/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a> as ecosystem architects,” said Ripple. 



“The restoration of wolves and other large predators has transformed parts of Yellowstone, benefiting not only willows but other woody species such as aspen, alder, and berry-producing shrubs. It’s a compelling reminder of how predators, prey, and plants are interconnected in nature.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unleashing-the-trophic-cascade">Unleashing the trophic cascade</h2>



The ecological phenomenon documented in Yellowstone is a textbook example of a trophic cascade. When <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-return-of-the-gray-wolf-triumph-or-tragedy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wolves</a> were extirpated from the park by the 1920s, elk populations surged, leading to overbrowsing and severe degradation of riparian vegetation.&nbsp;



This suppression not only diminished willow growth but also adversely affected other woody plants and the overall habitat quality in these crucial areas.&nbsp;



With the reintroduction of wolves and other large carnivores in the mid-1990s, elk numbers and behaviors were altered, allowing vegetation - especially willows - to rebound dramatically.



Using willow crown volume as a three-dimensional indicator of vegetation recovery, the study quantitatively measured the significant resurgence of riparian habitats.&nbsp;



Notably, the strength of this trophic cascade in Yellowstone is reported to surpass 82% of the strengths observed in a global synthesis of similar studies, highlighting the exceptional nature of the recovery process in this iconic landscape.&nbsp;



Yet, the researchers also noted that recovery varied considerably among sites, reflecting the complexity and spatial heterogeneity of natural systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-riparian-zones-crucial-biodiversity-hotspots">Riparian zones: Crucial biodiversity hotspots</h2>



Although riparian areas comprise only a small fraction of the western United States’ landscape, they are vital for biodiversity. 



These zones offer critical resources and habitat for a wide array of wildlife, linking upland and aquatic ecosystems and supporting a diversity of species that may not thrive elsewhere. 



The resurgence of willow growth is not merely an isolated botanical event; it plays a key role in restoring the integrity of entire riparian ecosystems, thereby benefiting birds, mammals, and other organisms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wolves-and-yellowstone-ecosystem-recovery">Wolves and Yellowstone ecosystem recovery</h2>



The study’s robust findings are based on an extensive, multi-decade dataset that captured the gradual but profound changes in riparian vegetation over time.&nbsp;



By employing willow crown volume as a measurable indicator, the researchers were able to directly link the restoration of large carnivores to ecosystem recovery. This method offers a powerful tool for evaluating trophic cascade strength and can potentially be applied to similar ecological studies elsewhere.



“Our analysis of a long-term data set simply confirmed that ecosystem recovery takes time. In the early years of this trophic cascade, plants were only beginning to grow taller after decades of suppression by elk. But the strength of this recovery, as shown by the dramatic increases in willow crown volume, became increasingly apparent in subsequent years,” said Robert Beschta, an emeritus professor at Oregon State University.&nbsp;



“These improving conditions have created vital habitats for birds and other species, while also enhancing other stream-side conditions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation-and-future-research">Implications for conservation and future research</h2>



This research not only highlights the importance of predator restoration for revitalizing degraded ecosystems but also provides critical insights for conservation strategies worldwide. 



The dramatic improvement in riparian vegetation in Yellowstone serves as a powerful reminder that restoring natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-predator-prey-feast-ever-seen-in-the-ocean-enormous-quickly-altered-food-chain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predator-prey dynamics</a> can have cascading benefits that extend to every level of the ecosystem.&nbsp;



As the study demonstrates, such processes are integral to maintaining biodiversity, ecosystem resilience, and the overall health of our natural landscapes.



By quantifying the recovery of willows, the study paves the way for further exploration into how the reintroduction of large carnivores can be harnessed to promote ecosystem restoration in other parts of the world.&nbsp;



As conservationists and policymakers seek effective strategies to mitigate the impacts of human activities and climate change, Yellowstone’s example offers both hope and a proven roadmap for the transformative power of nature’s own regulatory mechanisms.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2025.e03428" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Ecology and Conservation</a>.



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Wolves are rebuilding forests and restoring ecosystem balance in Yellowstone

A new study has unveiled the far-reaching ecological impact of...

The ocean is a world of sound. Beneath the surface, marine life relies on calls, clicks, and songs to navigate, communicate, and survive. For baleen whales, singing songs is essential, but it also comes with risks. 



Killer whales, their primary natural predators, are intelligent and highly skilled hunters. Yet, despite their sharp senses, some baleen whales manage to avoid their attacks.



New research from the University of Washington sheds light on a fascinating survival strategy. Some baleen <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/these-marine-mammals-killer-whales-dolphins-permanently-lost-ability-to-ever-walk-again/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales</a> call at frequencies so deep that killer whales cannot hear them. 



This unique adaptation influences everything from migration to mating, revealing how fear shapes the behavior of these giants of the sea.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fight-or-flight-dilemma-of-whales">Fight or flight dilemma of whales</h2>



Baleen whales, known for their filter-feeding systems, differ from their toothed relatives in behavior and survival strategies. 



Unlike dolphins or sperm whales, which often live in large, social pods, many baleen <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-helps-humans-have-20-minute-conversation-with-humpback-whale-named-twain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whale species</a> lead more solitary lives. When faced with an attack, they must decide whether to fight or flee.



Some species, like humpbacks and gray whales, choose to stand their ground. They rely on their maneuverability and group defense to deter predators. Others, like blue and fin whales, opt for speed, escaping into the vastness of the open ocean. 



This divide between fight and flight species plays a crucial role in shaping their lifestyles, habitats, and even the way they sing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mystery-of-whale-songs">Mystery of whale songs</h2>



Whale songs are among the most haunting and complex sounds in nature. Scientists have long studied these vocalizations to understand their purpose. 



While it is well known that whales use songs to attract mates and communicate across great distances, one question remained: why don’t killer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-20-minute-conversation-with-a-humpback-whale-named-twain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales</a> track these calls to hunt them down?



The answer lies in frequency. Killer whales have a hearing range that starts at 100 hertz, meaning they cannot detect sounds below this threshold. 



Some baleen whales, particularly those in the flight category, have adapted by producing ultra-low-frequency calls that remain completely undetectable to their predators. These deep-voiced species include blue, fin, sei, Bryde’s, and minke whales.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-songs-help-whales-hide">How songs help whales hide</h2>



Trevor Branch, professor of aquatic and fishery sciences at the <a href="https://www.washington.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a>, led a study analyzing the relationship between whale songs and predation risk. 



The research combined existing knowledge of killer whale hearing with studies on baleen whale vocalizations. By modeling how sound moves through the ocean, Professor Branch was able to determine which species remain acoustically hidden.



It turns out that the calls of flight species rarely travel more than a kilometer before fading. This means that even if killer whales could hear them, they would still be difficult to track. 



Meanwhile, the fight species - right, bowhead, gray, and humpback whales - produce higher-frequency calls that can be detected from much greater distances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whales-survival-strategy-hidden-in-songs">Whales survival strategy hidden in songs</h2>



The idea that baleen whales rely on fight or flight responses is not new, but the role of sound in their survival adds a new layer of understanding. Could these deep songs serve as a defense mechanism? 



This concept, known as "acoustic crypsis," suggests that some whales evolved to sing in a way that keeps them hidden from predators.



“But these super-loud songs could expose them and their mates to killer whale attack. And this is where acoustic crypsis comes in: singing at low frequencies that are impossible, or very difficult, for killer whales to hear,” Branch said.



This survival strategy highlights how even the most massive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whale-travels-farther-than-any-mammal-ever-recorded/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a> on Earth must adapt to threats. By calling at deep frequencies, flight species can continue their essential communication while reducing the risk of drawing unwanted attention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-habitat-influences-defense">How habitat influences defense</h2>



The fight-or-flight divide among baleen whales also affects where they live. Fight species tend to migrate and give birth in coastal areas. 



These shallow waters provide some protection, as they allow group defense strategies to work more effectively. Their slow-swimming bodies may make them vulnerable, but their ability to maneuver quickly gives them an edge when fending off an attack.



In contrast, flight species thrive in the open ocean. Their sleek, powerful bodies allow them to escape quickly when danger approaches. 



These whales spread out over vast distances, making it harder for killer whales to find them. Their survival depends on speed and silence rather than confrontation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trade-offs-in-feeding-and-mating">Trade-offs in feeding and mating</h2>



Choosing where to live comes with trade-offs. Coastal waters offer some protection from predators, but they also provide less food. Fight <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ship-routes-overlap-with-92-of-whale-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> must compete for limited resources, while flight species, living in more isolated open waters, have access to greater food supplies.



However, mating presents the opposite challenge. It is much easier for fight species to find partners when gathered in the same location. 



Flight species, scattered across thousands of miles, must rely on their songs to attract mates. This explains why their calls are long and repetitive, increasing the chances of being heard over vast distances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-fear-in-whale-behavior">Role of fear in whale behavior</h2>



The findings of this research suggest that fear plays a significant role in shaping whale behavior. Every aspect of their lives, from where they breed to how they communicate, is influenced by the threat of predation.



“It just never occurred to me that some whales sing low to avoid killer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-sharks-use-offshore-oil-rigs-as-food-stops-during-migration-harming-conservation-efforts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales</a>, but the more I looked at this, the more I realized that every aspect of their behavior is influenced by the fear of predation,” said Professor Branch.



This hidden war of sound beneath the waves highlights how even the ocean’s largest creatures must navigate the dangers of their world. By understanding songs of whales, scientists continue to uncover the secrets of survival in the deep.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/mms.13228" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Mammal Science</a>.



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Whales have developed an impressive strategy to evade predators

The ocean is a world of sound. Beneath the surface,...

Monarch butterflies have long symbolized transformation and resilience. Their fragile yet determined migration across North America has captivated scientists and nature enthusiasts.



Each year, these vibrant orange-and-black-winged insects embark on a remarkable journey, covering thousands of miles to reach their wintering grounds. However, recent findings paint a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/creating-new-forests-to-assist-monarch-butterfly-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">troubling picture</a>.



The number of western monarch butterflies has fallen to its second-lowest count in nearly 30 years. A combination of habitat destruction, pesticide exposure, and climate change threatens the survival of this iconic species.



Conservationists and researchers are scrambling to understand the reasons behind this sharp decline and what can be done to protect these beloved pollinators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monarch-butterfly-surveys">Monarch butterfly surveys </h2>



For decades, scientists have monitored monarch <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monarch-butterflies-may-be-added-to-the-endangered-species-list/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">populations</a> to track changes in their numbers. Monarchs found in the eastern United States migrate south to Mexico, where they are counted each year by researchers from the World Wildlife Fund.



However, monarchs west of the Rocky Mountains follow a different path and overwinter along the California coast.



Since 1997, the <a href="https://www.xerces.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation</a> has conducted annual counts of western monarchs. These surveys cover multiple locations, including coastal California, northern Baja California, and inland regions of California and Arizona. 



In 1997, researchers recorded the highest-ever population numbers - a total of 1.2 million butterflies. That number has plummeted over the subsequent years, reaching a devastating low of just 1,901 monarchs in 2020.



Despite a brief resurgence in recent years, the latest survey results are alarming. In 2024, only 9,119 monarchs were counted - a staggering 96 percent drop from the 233,394 recorded in 2023. This marks the second-lowest population count since the survey began.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decline-in-key-wintering-sites">Decline in key wintering sites</h2>



One of the most dramatic declines was observed at a key wintering site owned by <a href="https://www.nature.org/en-us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Nature Conservancy</a> in Santa Barbara. 



This location hosted 33,200 monarchs last winter. In 2024, the number fell to just 198. Such steep declines raise concerns about the future stability of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monarch-butterflies-shift-to-winter-breeding-for-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">monarch populations</a> in the region.



While the reasons for this sudden decrease are not entirely clear, experts point to several contributing factors. Loss of milkweed, the primary host plant for monarch caterpillars, remains one of the biggest challenges.



The plant’s habitat has been shrinking due to agricultural expansion, urban development, and prolonged droughts. Pesticides also play a major role, contaminating milkweed and poisoning caterpillars before they can mature into butterflies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-heat-and-monarch-butterflies">Extreme heat and monarch butterflies </h2>



Weather conditions also significantly impact monarch <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-are-monarch-butterflies-vanishing-in-the-winter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">populations</a>. While habitat destruction and pesticide exposure remain persistent threats, extreme heat waves may have played a crucial role in this year’s decline.



According to Emma Pelton, an endangered species biologist with the Xerces Society, monarchs struggle when temperatures reach 100 degrees Fahrenheit (37.7 Celsius). Prolonged exposure to temperatures above 108 degrees Fahrenheit (42.2 degrees Celsius) can be fatal.



“The monarch population is already small,” Pelton said. “Triple-digit heat in the western states last year may have slowed breeding.”



The summer of 2023 saw multiple heat waves across the western United States. In July, Palm Springs set a record high of 124 degrees Fahrenheit (51.1 degrees Celsius). 



A second wave of extreme heat hit northern California in early October, with multiple cities breaking temperature records. These conditions may have reduced breeding success and weakened the already vulnerable monarch population.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-history-of-dramatic-population-swings">History of dramatic population swings</h2>



Although the 2024 population decline is severe, western monarchs have demonstrated an ability to recover in the past. In 2020, when the population hit its all-time low of 1,901 individuals, many feared the species was on the brink of collapse.



Yet, the following year their numbers soared to 247,246 - an increase of nearly 13,000 percent. The upward trend continued in 2022, with the survey recording 335,479 monarchs.



“This is bad news,” Pelton said. “But we have seen incredible recovery. This doesn’t mean we’re not going to have western monarchs. It’s hopefully a wake-up call that a bad year can set them back pretty significantly.”



The rapid rise and fall of monarch populations suggest that they have the potential for quick recovery, provided conditions improve. However, conservationists warn that without sustained efforts to protect their habitat and food sources, monarchs may struggle to bounce back in the future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-federal-efforts-to-protect-monarch-butterflies">Federal efforts to protect monarch butterflies</h2>



In response to the ongoing decline, the <a href="https://www.fws.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service</a> announced in December 2024 that it is taking steps to list monarchs as a threatened species. 



If granted, this status would provide crucial legal protections. Killing or transporting monarchs, or destroying monarch habitats would be prohibited under federal law.



The proposal also includes protections for 4,395 acres of land across seven coastal California counties. These areas serve as essential overwintering sites for western monarchs. 



If the listing is approved, conservationists hope it will slow habitat destruction and create safer breeding grounds for monarch <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eastern-monarch-butterfly-populations-have-plummeted-by-59-percent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">populations</a> to recover.



A public comment period on the proposal remains open until March, allowing experts and the public to weigh in on the decision. Officials have until December 2025 to finalize the listing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-calls-for-stronger-pesticide-regulations">Calls for stronger pesticide regulations</h2>



Beyond habitat loss, pesticides pose a major threat to monarchs and other pollinators. In December 2024, the environmental law firm Earthjustice petitioned the Environmental Protection Agency to strengthen pesticide regulations. 



Their request focused on requiring companies to assess how their products affect insects such as bees, moths, and butterflies.



While some pesticides have been linked to monarch declines, many remain widely used in agriculture. Conservation groups argue that without stricter oversight, pesticide exposure will continue to harm pollinators and reduce their chances of survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-fate-of-monarch-butterflies">The fate of monarch butterflies</h2>



The future of western monarchs remains uncertain. Conservationists stress that efforts to restore milkweed habitats, protect overwintering sites, and regulate harmful pesticides must continue. 



While federal protections may provide some relief, long-term recovery will require a collective effort from governments, researchers, and the public.



For now, the sight of monarch <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milkweed-gardens-are-needed-to-save-monarch-butterflies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterflies</a> filling the skies each year remains in jeopardy. The next few years will determine whether these iconic pollinators can withstand the mounting pressures against them or if they will fade into memory as another casualty of a changing world.



Information in this article was obtained from an online <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2025/feb/04/monarch-butterfly-population-decline">press release</a>.



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Monarch butterflies face steep decline in the Western U.S.

Monarch butterflies have long symbolized transformation and resilience. Their fragile...

Each year, painted lady butterflies embark on one of the most remarkable migrations in the animal kingdom, traveling up to 10,000 km between Africa and Europe in search of optimal breeding conditions.&nbsp;



But what determines how far an individual butterfly will travel? Is migration encoded in their DNA, or is it shaped by external factors?



A recent study, led by scientists at the <a href="https://ist.ac.at/en/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute of Science and Technology Austria</a> (ISTA) in collaboration with international research teams, reveals that environmental conditions - not genetics - dictate whether a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-incredible-transatlantic-journey-of-the-painted-lady/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">painted lady</a> will travel long or short distances. 



The findings challenge previous assumptions about butterfly migration and highlight the role of phenotypic plasticity - the ability of organisms to alter their behavior in response to their surroundings.



Study co-author Daria Shipilina is an evolutionary biologist and postdoctoral researcher at ISTA. 



“The painted lady is a strikingly beautiful and colorful butterfly species,” said Shipilina. "Watching them form large aggregations is a true spectacle. But what makes them particularly special is their incredible long-distance migrations.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-of-nature-s-most-impressive-migrations">One of nature’s most impressive migrations</h2>



Painted ladies begin their journey in Northwest Africa in the spring. They fly across the Mediterranean into Europe, where subsequent generations continue northward, reaching as far as Sweden and the Arctic tundra. 



For a long time, scientists believed that once these butterflies arrived in northern Europe, they perished in the colder months.&nbsp;



However, recent studies confirmed that painted ladies complete a circular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-butterfly-migration-sparked-by-a-surge-in-vegetation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migration</a>, returning south in autumn - some staying in the Mediterranean region while others venture all the way back to Africa, even crossing the Sahara.



This discovery raised a crucial question: why do some painted ladies migrate farther than others? Do they have an internal navigation system that dictates their path?



To investigate, Shipilina and her team collected painted lady butterflies from various locations, including Benin, Senegal, Morocco, Spain, Portugal, and Malta, and employed advanced isotope geolocation techniques to track their movements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-the-butterflies-origins-and-destinations">Tracing the butterflies' origins and destinations</h2>



By analyzing the stable isotopes in butterfly wings, the researchers could determine where each butterfly originated as a caterpillar.



“The key principle of this method is that the isotopic makeup - or the stable isotopes - of the adult butterfly’s wings mirrors the isotopic signature of the plants they ate as a caterpillar,” Shipilina explained.



Co-first authors Megan Reich and Clément Bataille from the <a href="https://www.uottawa.ca/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Ottawa</a> spent several years refining this geolocation technique, integrating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-machine-learning-can-help-us-protect-chimpanzees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">machine-learning</a> algorithms to improve accuracy.&nbsp;



The analysis revealed two distinct migration patterns: while some butterflies took a long trip south, migrating from Scandinavia across the Sahara, others traveled shorter distances, staying in the Mediterranean region.



This raised another question - was this difference encoded in the butterflies’ genes?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-basis-of-butterfly-migration-nbsp">Genetic basis of butterfly migration&nbsp;</h2>



To investigate the genetic basis of migration, the scientists conducted whole <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterfly-genome-has-barely-changed-after-250-million-years-of-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genome</a> sequencing on the butterflies. Surprisingly, their analysis showed no significant genetic differences between those that migrated long distances and those that stayed closer to Europe.



“This finding fundamentally differs from what is observed in some birds, another well-studied migratory group,” Shipilina noted. “For example, in willow warblers, a large chromosomal region has been associated with variable migratory direction, illustrating how different phenotypes arise from distinct genomic compositions.”



Additionally, factors like sex, wing size, and wing shape had no clear influence on migration distances, further ruling out genetic or physiological predisposition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-cues-and-butterfly-migration">Environmental cues and butterfly migration</h2>



If genes don’t dictate migration behavior, then what does? According to the study, environmental conditions play the dominant role.&nbsp;



The scientists propose that phenotypic plasticity - the ability of an organism to adapt its behavior based on external cues - explains why some butterflies migrate farther than others.



For instance, a butterfly in Sweden might receive strong environmental cues to migrate long distances, such as shortening day length and temperature drops, prompting it to cross the Sahara.&nbsp;



Meanwhile, a butterfly in Southern France, where seasonal changes are less extreme, may not experience the same triggers, leading it to migrate only as far as the Mediterranean region.



“Phenotypic plasticity allows organisms to adjust their migratory behavior without changing their genetic makeup,” Shipilina said. “This flexibility could be key to how painted ladies adapt to different climatic conditions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complexities-of-butterfly-migration-nbsp">Complexities of butterfly migration&nbsp;</h2>



Compared to species like monarch butterflies, painted lady migration remains relatively understudied.&nbsp;



This latest research raises new questions: Does this migration pattern apply to painted ladies worldwide? Are other butterfly species also influenced by environmental cues rather than genetics? How will climate change impact the migration patterns of painted ladies in the future?



The researchers aim to build on these findings to further unravel the complexities of butterfly migration.



“There is still so much to learn about the migration of painted ladies,” Shipilina said. “We are determined to close this knowledge gap - one paper at a time.”



By demonstrating that migration strategies are shaped by the environment rather than hardwired in DNA, this study provides a new perspective on how insects navigate the world.&nbsp;



As climate patterns shift, understanding these flexible behaviors may be critical for predicting and protecting the future of migratory butterflies.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgae586" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PNAS Nexus</a>.



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Butterfly migration habits are not determined by their DNA

Each year, painted lady butterflies embark on one of the...

It sits at the tail end of our digestive system and measures around 5 feet long by 2.5 inches across. The colon is responsible for absorbing water, maintaining hydration levels, and managing waste before it leaves the body.



Recent research has highlighted certain fruits that can support <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/western-diet-identified-as-major-cause-of-colon-cancer/">colon health</a>. The apple emerged as a standout because of its potential to promote a healthier gut and help maintain balanced gut flora.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-colon">Understanding the colon</h2>



The colon’s structure includes four segments that work together to finalize digestion. Issues like constipation or diarrhea can result when any part of this complex pathway is disturbed.



Colon-related illnesses can display symptoms such as abdominal pain, bloating, or visible blood in stool. Certain screenings like colonoscopy can detect cancers or irregularities at an early stage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-apples-draw-attention">Why apples draw attention</h2>



Apples pack a high dose of pectin, which has properties that might diminish gastrointestinal inflammation. These fibers also seem to encourage healthy bacterial growth in the intestines.



Research has shown that including apples in a regular diet may result in reduced cholesterol and better weight control. This benefit ties back to the apple’s soluble fiber, which is thought to slow fat absorption.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-insights-on-fiber">Scientific insights on fiber</h2>



A study on fiber-enriched botanicals highlighted how these compounds contribute to digestive health by promoting gut motility and supporting beneficial bacteria. In apples, this type of fiber sweeps through the digestive system, pushing out unwanted substances along the way.



“The fiber is usually a nondigestible polysaccharide that is not digested in the human body,” explained Dr. Khalid, the study's lead author from Government College University in Faisalabad. 



Fiber’s role in colon function has been studied for its link to improved bowel regularity. It also appears to help in stabilizing blood sugar and supporting cardiovascular health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-juice-based-diet-and-gut-health">Juice-based diet and gut health</h2>



Another <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5438379/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> on the effects of a vegetable and fruit juice-based diet found notable changes in gut microbiota, metabolism, and overall health.&nbsp;



The researchers tracked participants consuming only vegetable and fruit juices. The results showed a significant decrease in weight and body mass index - demonstrating the potential impact of plant-based nutrients on digestion and weight regulation.



Although apples were not singled out in the juice-based experiment, the key takeaway remains that fruit-rich regimens can shift gut bacteria. These shifts often coincide with reductions in overall body mass.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-anti-inflammatory-angle">The anti-inflammatory angle</h2>



Inflammatory bowel disease can cause tremendous discomfort and disrupt daily life. A study on dietary interventions for IBD identified the anti-inflammatory diet as a promising strategy for managing symptoms and supporting gut health.



Apples, with their pectin and plant compounds, could complement such approaches. They may lessen the impact of irritants in the digestive tract and reduce flare-ups in some individuals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-of-dried-fruits">Potential of dried fruits</h2>



Fruits play a vital role in gut health, whether consumed fresh or dried. A <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10097306/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> on the health effects of dried fruits found limited evidence suggesting that dried fruits (raisins, cranberries, dates, prunes) may positively influence gut microbiota composition. 



Apples in their dried form carry nutrients that could still be valuable. People seeking a portable option could find dried apples handy if they stay mindful of portion sizes.



Each person’s digestive system has unique sensitivities, so it’s wise to start slow with fiber-rich fruits. Switching to a high-fiber diet too quickly may cause bloating or abdominal discomfort.



It’s also important to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-water-is-the-key-to-a-long-and-healthy-life/">drink enough water</a> to keep everything moving along. Staying hydrated can help the colon effectively manage any uptick in fiber.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simple-ways-to-include-apples">Simple ways to include apples</h2>



Having an apple as a midday snack or pairing it with a meal can be a small step toward better digestive health. Apple slices can be blended into a morning smoothie or eaten with peanut butter.



Baked apple slices are a sweeter treat that still contains much of the fruit’s natural fiber. These small additions can fit easily into a regular daily routine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fruit-for-a-healthy-colon">Fruit for a healthy colon</h2>



Apples are not a cure-all, yet they align with research pointing to benefits of fruit-based diets. Combined with regular checkups, they can be part of a measured effort to keep things running smoothly.



Routine screenings remain essential for catching possible complications early. Listening to the body’s signals and consulting with professionals are key for anyone looking to fine-tune their digestive wellness.



A balanced diet that includes apples might be more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vegetables-prevent-colon-cancer/">helpful for colon</a> function than many realize. The fiber, water content, and protective compounds within this fruit may do more for the gut than just satisfying hunger.



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This fruit is ideal for cleansing the colon, according to experts

It sits at the tail end of our digestive system...

Octopuses have long fascinated scientists with their intelligence, camouflage abilities, and unique biology. 



These remarkable creatures continue to surprise researchers, revealing new secrets about their evolutionary past. One of the most intriguing mysteries has been the question of how octopuses determine their sex.



Scientists at the University of Oregon recently identified a sex chromosome in the California two-spot octopus. This discovery confirms that cephalopods, a group that includes squid and nautiluses, rely on chromosomes for sex determination. 



The research also suggests that this chromosome has existed for at least 480 million years, making it one of the oldest known sex chromosomes in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/turquets-octopus-dna-tells-scientists-that-west-antarctic-ice-sheet-collapse-is-close/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal kingdom</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sex-chromosome-in-octopuses">Sex chromosome in octopuses</h2>



“Cephalopods are already such interesting creatures, and there are so many things we’re still learning about them, especially in neuroscience,” said Gabby Coffing, a doctoral student at the <a href="https://www.uoregon.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oregon</a>. 



“This is just showing one more interesting thing about them: They have really ancient sex chromosomes.”



The findings, published in the journal Current Biology, provide new insights into the genetic history of octopuses and their relatives. Understanding this ancient sex determination system could help scientists uncover more about how these intelligent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-octopus-day-the-intelligent-creatures-of-the-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a> evolved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sex-determination-varies-across-species">Sex determination varies across species</h2>



Sex determination is not the same for all animals. While humans and most mammals rely on the X/Y chromosome system, other species follow different methods. 



In turtles, sex depends on the temperature at which the eggs incubate. Some fish determine sex using a single gene rather than a whole chromosome. 



Even in humans, sex chromosomes are not always straightforward. Gene mutations or extra sex chromosomes can lead to biological variations that do not fit into a simple male or female category.



Cephalopods have long posed a challenge for genetic research. They are not standard laboratory animals like mice or fruit flies, making it difficult for scientists to study their genetics in depth. 



Although researchers have sequenced the genomes of some octopus <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-suckers-the-future-of-underwater-adhesives/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>, they still struggle to link specific genes to particular traits. The discovery of an octopus sex chromosome marks a major breakthrough in understanding how these animals develop and reproduce.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-sex-chromosome-in-female-octopuses">Unique sex chromosome in female octopuses</h2>



The research team at the University of Oregon made an unexpected discovery when sequencing the DNA of a female California two-spot octopus. 



Among its 30 chromosomes, one stood out because it contained only half the usual amount of genetic material. This anomaly had not appeared in previous studies of male octopus DNA.



“This particular chromosome had half the amount of sequencing data, which indicated there was only one copy,” Coffing explained. “Then as we explored that more, we reached the conclusion that we must have stumbled upon a sex chromosome.”



This finding suggested that female octopuses carry a unique chromosome that males do not. The scientists needed to confirm their discovery by comparing it with data from other cephalopods. 



If this chromosome appeared in multiple species, it would indicate an ancient and consistent pattern of sex determination.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sex-chromosome-exists-in-other-cephalopods">Sex chromosome exists in other cephalopods</h2>



The team analyzed genomic data from other octopus species and found similar evidence of this unique chromosome. 



The experts also detected the sex chromosome in squid, a species that diverged from octopuses between 248 and 455 million years ago. More surprisingly, they identified traces of it in the nautilus, a mollusk that split from the octopus lineage approximately 480 million years ago.



“This indicates that their common ancestor had this similar sex determination system,” Coffing said.



Most sex chromosomes change rapidly over time because they play a crucial role in reproduction. However, this cephalopod sex chromosome appears to have remained stable for hundreds of millions of years. 



This suggests that octopuses and their relatives have relied on this system without significant evolutionary changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-ancient-sex-chromosomes">Comparing ancient sex chromosomes</h2>



While the octopus sex chromosome is one of the oldest known, other ancient sex chromosomes exist in nature. 



Some plants, like mosses and liverworts, evolved their sex chromosomes early in Earth’s history. Insects also have sex chromosomes that date back about 450 million years, though these have changed considerably over time.



The discovery in octopuses challenges the idea that sex chromosomes always evolve quickly. It suggests that some systems remain stable if they continue to work effectively over long periods. Cephalopods seem to have found a genetic formula for sex determination that has stood the test of time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mystery-of-the-missing-w-chromosome">Mystery of the missing W chromosome</h2>



One question remains unanswered: how exactly does the sex determination system work in octopuses? Scientists initially suspected that octopuses might have a system similar to birds and butterflies, where males have two identical chromosomes (ZZ) and females have one of each (ZW).



Kern and his team searched for a W chromosome in female octopuses but didn't find one. This leaves open the possibility that octopuses follow a different system in which males have two copies of a single chromosome (ZZ), while females have only one (Z).



Researchers still need more evidence to confirm how octopus sex chromosomes function. While this study has solved one piece of the puzzle, many questions remain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-secrets-of-the-octopus">Secrets of the octopus </h2>



Octopuses continue to be one of the most enigmatic creatures in the ocean. Their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-octopus-has-mastered-the-art-of-multispecies-hunting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">intelligence</a>, problem-solving skills, and unique genetics set them apart from most other animals. 



The discovery of an ancient sex chromosome adds another layer to their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary story</a>. For now, researchers know that this octopus sex chromosome has been around for nearly half a billion years. However, the exact mechanics of how it works remain uncertain.



As scientists continue to explore cephalopod genetics, they will uncover more about how these fascinating animals developed their extraordinary traits.



The octopus has revealed one of its secrets, but it still holds on to many more.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00005-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Sex chromosome discovered in octopuses is 480 million years old

Octopuses have long fascinated scientists with their intelligence, camouflage abilities,...

For a long time, researchers believed that only humans could recognize when someone else lacked information. This ability, known as "theory of mind," allows people to communicate, teach, and cooperate in complex ways. Many thought that animals, including apes, did not share this skill.



However, new research from Johns Hopkins University challenges that idea. The experts found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-apes-will-suffer-through-frequent-and-extreme-climate-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">apes</a> actively pointed out hidden treats to humans who did not know where they were.



This seemingly simple action suggests that apes understand when others lack information and take steps to help them.



The findings, published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, provide the clearest evidence yet that apes can track ignorance in others. This discovery offers insight into the shared cognitive abilities of humans and great apes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-apes-share-cognitive-abilities-with-humans">Apes share cognitive abilities with humans</h2>



Study co-author Chris Krupenye is an assistant professor of psychological and brain sciences at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins</a>.



“The ability to sense gaps in one another’s knowledge is at the heart of our most sophisticated social behaviors, central to the ways we cooperate, communicate, and work together strategically,” said Professor Krupenye. 



He explained that this cognitive ability forms the basis for skills like language and teaching, both of which are considered uniquely human. The study suggests that these abilities may have evolved millions of years ago, long before <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modern humans</a> emerged.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-ape-intelligence">Testing ape intelligence </h2>



In collaboration with Luke Townrow, a Johns Hopkins PhD student, Professor Krupenye worked with three male bonobos to explore <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/apes-use-gestures-similar-to-human-body-language/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">apes</a>’ understanding of others’ knowledge.



The apes - Nyota, 25; Kanzi, 43; and Teco, 13 - live at Ape Initiative, a research and education nonprofit.



The experiment was designed to test whether the apes could recognize when a human lacked information. One bonobo sat across a table from Townrow. Another person placed a treat (a grape or a Cheerio) under one of three cups.



Sometimes, Townrow could see where the treat was placed. Other times, he could not. The bonobo could only get the treat if Townrow found it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-apes-anticipate-what-humans-know">Apes anticipate what humans know</h2>



Townrow always asked the same question: “Where’s the grape?” and then waited for ten seconds. If he had seen where the treat was hidden, the bonobo usually remained still, waiting for him to retrieve it.



But when Townrow did not see the treat being hidden, the bonobo reacted differently. Instead of waiting, it quickly pointed to the correct cup. Some bonobos even pointed multiple times, making sure their message was clear.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clear-and-repeated-gestures">Clear and repeated gestures</h2>



“Their fingers would point right through the mesh - it was clear what they were trying to communicate,” said Professor Krupenye.



One of the apes, Kanzi, reacted especially strongly. He was highly food-motivated and would tap repeatedly to ensure Townrow noticed his pointing. His eagerness highlighted the urgency with which the apes tried to share information.



This reaction supports previous observations from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-anadoluvius-turkae-suggests-humans-originated-in-europe-not-africa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wild</a>. Researchers have seen chimpanzees vocalize to warn others of danger when a group member appears unaware of a threat, such as a nearby snake.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recognizing-gaps-in-knowledge">Recognizing gaps in knowledge</h2>



“We predicted that if apes are really tracking ignorance, when their partners lacked knowledge, they would be pointing more often and more quickly, and that’s exactly what they did,” Krupenye said.



The ability to recognize when someone lacks knowledge suggests that apes can hold two different perspectives at the same time. They know where the treat is, but apes also recognize that their human partner does not.



This cognitive skill is fundamental in human social interactions. People adjust their communication based on what they believe others know or do not know. The findings suggest that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/playful-teasing-among-apes-suggests-that-humor-has-ancient-origins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">great apes</a> share this ability at a basic level.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-apes-have-advanced-mental-abilities">Apes have advanced mental abilities</h2>



“There are debates in the field about the capabilities of primates, and for us, it was exciting to confirm that they really do have these rich capacities that some people have denied them,” Krupenye said.



By demonstrating that apes can track others' ignorance, the study provides new evidence that great apes possess more advanced mental abilities than previously believed. This research could reshape how scientists view the evolution of human intelligence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-can-apes-change-human-beliefs">Can apes change human beliefs?</h2>



The next step is to investigate why apes behave this way. Are they simply trying to influence their partner’s behavior, or do they understand that they are changing someone else’s thoughts?



“What we’ve shown here is that apes will communicate with a partner to change their behavior, but a key open question for further research is whether apes are also pointing to change their partner’s mental state or their beliefs," said Townrow.



Future studies will explore whether <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-early-humans-learned-to-walk-from-an-ancestor-called-lufengpithecus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">apes</a> communicate to correct others’ misunderstandings or simply to achieve a goal. Either way, the findings suggest that the roots of human social intelligence stretch back millions of years.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2412450122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Apes can tell when humans don’t know something

For a long time, researchers believed that only humans could...

Scientists reveal that killer whales and dolphins have lost the ability to return to life on land. The <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.96.18.10261" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancestors</a> of these sea creatures once walked along the shores, but those days will not return.



Evolution molded these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brazilian-river-dolphins-communication/">marine mammals</a> into highly efficient swimmers. Their limbs transformed into flippers, and their bodies became highly adapted to life in a watery world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-transition-of-land-dwelling-mammals">Transition of land-dwelling mammals</h2>



About <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2020.0523" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">375 million years ago</a>, the first vertebrates left water behind. This shift gave rise to animals that breathed air and strolled across the land.



However, a wave of land-dwelling mammals later took the plunge back into the sea. That second transition happened around 250 million years ago and led to the evolution of whales, dolphins, and other fully aquatic groups.



“Once cetaceans pass the critical point of aquatic adaptation, their evolution follows a path of no return,” said study lead author Bruna Farina from the <a href="https://uni-freiburg.de/en/">University</a><a href="https://uni-freiburg.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> </a><a href="https://uni-freiburg.de/en/">of Freiburg</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sea-creatures-that-will-never-walk">Sea creatures that will never walk</h2>



Dollo’s Law states that complex evolutionary transformations cannot be reversed once they are fully established. 



This idea mirrors what researchers see in dolphin and killer whale lineages, where the changes run too deep to roll back.



These adaptations include streamlined bodies, the presence of a blow hole, powerful tails, the transition to flippers, and specialized organs for underwater living. Each feature is so fine-tuned for marine life that the possibility of ever walking on dry land again is miniscule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unbreakable-aquatic-ties">Unbreakable aquatic ties</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orcas-have-hunting-and-eating-habits-that-we-never-imagined/">Killer whales</a> and dolphins stand out for their intelligence and tight social bonds. Their communication skills and group strategies have helped them conquer seas around the world and become top predators in marine ecosystems.



Yet their advanced aquatic traits also impose serious limits. Living in the ocean demands specialized breathing, insulation, and saltwater tolerance.



“Extreme specialization in an environment can become an evolutionary trap, reducing the chances of survival in the face of environmental changes,” noted Virag Sharma from the <a href="https://www.ul.ie/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Limerick</a>.



Body size also plays a part in this story. In cooler waters, larger mass helps retain heat, further nudging these animals to remain in deep seas.



Once bodies are scaled up and limbs shift into flippers, returning to land becomes far more complicated. Muscles that once stabilized weight on solid ground are no longer adapted to bearing loads outside the ocean.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vulnerability-in-changing-seas">Vulnerability in changing seas</h2>



Shifting ocean <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2018.0186" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperatures</a> strain marine ecosystems and challenge species that are adapted to specific thermal ranges. Warmer waters can disrupt prey availability and fuel harmful algal blooms.



Killer whales and dolphins face added dangers from pollution, overfishing, and noise. Their reliance on echolocation and coordinated hunting can be hampered by excessive boat traffic or contaminated habitats.



Unlike <a href="https://animalia.bio/semiaquatic-animals" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">semiaquatic mammals</a>, these <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/cetacean" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cetaceans</a> have no land-based alternatives. They cannot flee to shallower waters or take shelter on beaches to avoid hazards. The ocean remains their only refuge.



This single-environment dependence increases their vulnerability. Large storms, sudden temperature shifts, or habitat degradation could hit them harder than species with more flexible living arrangements.



Experts warn that these animals sit at the mercy of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-oceans-are-rapidly-changing-colors-matching-climate-predictions/">rapid ocean changes</a>. Without protective measures, killer whales and dolphins face more barriers to coping with disruptions than do their land-capable relatives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



Scientists continue studying how extreme physical changes reinforce cetaceans’ permanent reliance on the sea. Bone density, muscular configuration, and specialized blowholes highlight how far they have diverged from their land-roaming forebears.



Such features are beneficial for these sea creatures in the water but pose insurmountable challenges which prevent them from walking on land. Gravity becomes an obstacle, and their bodies lack the support systems found in most terrestrial mammals.



Conservation <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1101525108" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">efforts</a> aim to safeguard these ocean dwellers from growing pressures. Marine protected areas and stricter pollution controls may help maintain stable conditions.



Large-scale collaboration among nations, researchers, and communities could help shield dolphins and killer whales from further decline. Reducing noise pollution and regulating fisheries are among the steps that might keep them thriving.



Future work will explore genetic and ecological factors that shape their fate. Meanwhile, the public can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-meadows-and-climate-change-an-uncertain-future/">support conservation</a> efforts by staying informed and encouraging sustainable practices.



The study is published in <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2023.1099" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.



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These marine mammals have lost their ability to ever walk on land again

Scientists reveal that killer whales and dolphins have lost the...

The ocean is a vast and mysterious world, teeming with life that often remains hidden from human eyes. Occasionally, however, nature reveals its secrets in breathtaking ways. 



This was recently the case in Carmel Bay off the central coast of California, where hundreds of dolphins were seen leaping and gliding together. 



Drone footage captured across the bay reveals a miles-long cluster of dolphins, forming what experts call a "super pod" of more than 1,500 animals. 



These weren’t just any dolphins - they were Risso’s dolphins, a species known for their stocky bodies, bulbous heads, and preference for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lonely-dolphin-in-the-baltic-sea-is-constantly-talking/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">smaller groups</a>.



Typically traveling in pods of 10 to 30, their sudden appearance in such large numbers was an unusual and captivating sight, drawing attention from scientists and enthusiasts alike.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dolphins-create-a-super-pod">Dolphins create a super pod</h2>



Captain Evan Brodsky with the <a href="https://montereybaywhalewatch.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monterey Bay Whale Watch</a> was among those fortunate enough to witness the spectacle. He captured the drone footage of the event, which took place on a Friday morning.



"They were on the horizon I feel like as far as I could see," he said. The sheer scale of the gathering was overwhelming, even for someone accustomed to observing marine life.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="7SSuI0ftF5-4296162-12187" type="single"]</div>



Brodsky and his team had set out that day in search of gray whales, but their plans were quickly overshadowed by the unexpected arrival of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fentanyl-discovered-in-dolphins-what-it-means-for-marine-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dolphins</a>. From their 20-foot inflatable boat, they watched mesmerized as the dolphins jumped out of the water with fluid and graceful movements.



These creatures, which can weigh up to 1,100 pounds and grow as long as 13 feet, seemed to be putting on a show, peeking around as they leaped into the air. Their playful behavior added to the spectacle of the dolphin super pod, creating a scene that felt almost otherworldly in its beauty and energy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dolphins-at-play-a-celebration-of-life">Dolphins at play: A celebration of life</h2>



Colleen Talty, a marine biologist who joined the trip to track the annual migration of gray whales, described the scene as "pretty amazing."



She was particularly struck by the sheer number of dolphins cavorting all around their boat. Some of them swam at the front of the vessel, using the waves created by its movement to propel themselves forward - a behavior known as bow riding.



"They were just having a great time. So they were breaching everywhere... tail slapping, coming right over to the boat. They looked like they were having a big party," said Talty.



The mix of adult and juvenile <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-found-in-dolphin-breath/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dolphins</a> suggested that several smaller pods had come together, likely traveling south. While such large gatherings have been observed before, they are not common - making this sighting even more remarkable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-features-of-the-monterey-coastline">Features of the Monterey coastline</h2>



The Monterey coastline played a significant role in making this encounter possible. Its unique underwater features, including a deep submarine canyon, create conditions that allow dolphins to swim much closer to shore than they might elsewhere along the California coast. 



According to Talty, this makes the area particularly ideal for spotting these marine mammals.



The team initially underestimated the size of the super pod, believing it consisted of only several hundred dolphins. It wasn’t until they launched the drone that the true scale became apparent. 



"Once we put the drone up, I was just blown away. I kept saying, 'Look at my screen. Look at my screen. Look how many there are,'" noted Brodsky. "It just blows my mind every time. It never gets old."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-playful-dolphins-in-the-super-pod">Playful dolphins in the super pod </h2>



One of the most memorable moments of the day came when Talty stood at the front of the boat and noticed dolphins turning on their sides to look directly at her. 



These curious <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pebanista-yacuruna-giant-dolphin-species-discovered-peru-amazon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a> seemed as interested in the humans as the humans were in them. Their playful behavior and apparent curiosity created a sense of connection between the two species - a reminder of the shared bond between all living beings.



As the dolphins continued to interact with the boat, the team made sure to drive carefully, avoiding any sudden movements that might harm the animals. 



"You don't want to make any abrasive maneuvers and potentially injure an animal. That's of course the last thing you ever want to do," Brodsky said. 



Instead, the team cruised alongside the dolphins, savoring the moment. "It was an incredible experience," he concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-s-grand-performance">Nature’s grand performance</h2>



This remarkable encounter with a dolphin super pod serves as a powerful reminder of the wonders of the natural world. For those lucky enough to witness such an event, it’s an experience that will stay with them forever.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-dolphins-who-play-with-others-become-successful-adults/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dolphins</a>’ playful antics and the sheer scale of their gathering highlighted the beauty and complexity of marine life, leaving an indelible mark on everyone present.



Moments like these also emphasize the importance of preserving the ocean and its inhabitants. As human activity continues to impact marine ecosystems, events like the Carmel Bay super pod remind us of what's at stake.



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'Super pod' of over 1,500 dolphins captured in stunning drone footage

The ocean is a vast and mysterious world, teeming with...

A new study reveals that rat infestations in many cities worldwide are on the rise, with Washington, D.C. emerging as the biggest hotspot. 



The study, which was focused on rat sighting reports from 16 global cities, attributes the increasing rat populations to warming temperatures, urbanization, and other human activities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rat-sightings-on-the-rise">Rat sightings on the rise</h2>



The researchers conducted a first-of-its-kind analysis using publicly submitted rat complaint data. They discovered that in 11 of the 16 cities analyzed, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rats-have-a-very-complex-social-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rat</a> sightings have increased in recent years. 



Based on individual city trends, Washington D.C. led the pack, followed by San Francisco, Toronto, New York City, and Amsterdam. According to the study, the rat reporting trend in Washington D.C. was three times greater than that of Boston. 



Only three cities - New Orleans, Louisville, and Tokyo - experienced significant decreases in rat reports, with New Orleans showing the largest drop. The experts suggest that New Orleans’ strategies could serve as a model for other cities seeking to control rat populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-drivers-of-rat-population-growth">Key drivers of rat population growth </h2>



The research team performed statistical analyses of rat sighting reports and concluded that a little over 40% of the rising trend is due to warming temperatures. 



This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rapid-surge-in-global-warming-may-have-an-unexpected-source/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a> is primarily a result of burning coal, oil, and natural gas, which leads to milder winters and longer foraging periods for rats. 



Study lead author Jonathan Richardson, a biologist at the <a href="https://www.richmond.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Richmond</a>, explained the mechanism.



“We're seeing these increasing trends in rats in cities that are warming the fastest, probably because this is a small mammal that has physiological challenges in the cold weather months,” said Richardson.&nbsp;



“If we're warming the climate and winter starts a week or two later and spring arrives a week or two earlier, that's one, two, maybe even three or four weeks across the entire year where those rats can be above ground foraging, acquiring more food and maybe squeezing out one or two more reproductive cycles.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urbanization-and-higher-population-density">Urbanization and higher population density </h2>



Even a few extra weeks of activity can have a dramatic effect, given that female rats can produce a litter every month. With each litter consisting of eight to 16 pups, this additional time significantly accelerates population growth.



In addition to the effects of warming, the study identified increased <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urbanization-is-a-threat-to-78-of-the-worlds-bird-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urbanization</a> and higher population densities as major factors. Rats thrive in built environments where food waste is abundant and human activity creates numerous shelters.&nbsp;



The experts note that these conditions allow rats to flourish in areas where people and their refuse provide a constant source of sustenance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rats-nature-s-ultimate-urban-survivors">Rats: Nature’s ultimate urban survivors</h2>



Rats have evolved to be remarkably adaptive in urban settings. New York City rat czar Kathleen Corradi stated during a conference that the rat is the third most successful mammal behind humans and house mice. So it evolved and engineered to live alongside us.&nbsp;



“They followed humans, Homo sapiens, across the continents and are in every single continent except Antarctica. So it's considered a wicked problem.”



Their ability to adapt and survive in close proximity to humans explains why rat populations are expanding even as cities implement various control measures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consequences-of-rising-rat-populations">Consequences of rising rat populations</h2>



While rats are undeniably adaptable, their increasing numbers pose serious risks. When rodent populations soar, public health and urban infrastructure can suffer. 



"When rodent populations are high, people get sick, motor vehicles become disabled, mental health declines, fires are started and foods fouled," said Houston rat expert Michael Parsons, who was not involved in the study.



This statement captures the multifaceted impact of rat infestations. High rat populations can lead to increased transmission of diseases, disruption of transportation systems, and other societal challenges. 



People are understandably disturbed by rats, primarily due to an instinctive fear of creatures that can transmit disease.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quantifying-city-rats">Quantifying city rats</h2>



Rats are notoriously difficult to count accurately due to their secretive and elusive nature. The study did not count rats directly; instead, it analyzed rat sighting complaints submitted by city residents. 



Although these reports may not reflect the actual number of rats, they provide valuable insight into trends over time. Richardson emphasized that the long-term consistency of the reporting methods used in the study lends credibility to the observed trends.



Even though Washington D.C. exhibited the highest rate of increase, Richardson clarified that this does not necessarily mean the city has the most rats overall - it simply indicates that the number of rat complaints is rising faster than in other cities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prevention-over-poison">Prevention over poison</h2>



The study's findings suggest that traditional methods of rat control, such as poisoning and trapping, may not be sufficient to combat the escalating problem. 



Instead, prevention measures appear to be more effective. In cities like New Orleans, public authorities are taking proactive steps. 



For instance, educational workshops and community campaigns focus on reducing conditions that attract rats, such as improper waste management and excess food availability.



“In New Orleans they make a big effort to get out into neighborhoods and do educational workshops and campaigns to talk to residents about what makes a property less likely to have rats,” Richardson said.



Similarly, New York City has initiated innovative strategies, including replacing street garbage bags with rat-resistant containers and forming an elite volunteer group known as the “NYC rat pack.” 



Early results from these initiatives are promising, although comprehensive data have yet to fully reflect their impact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-complex-urban-challenge">A complex urban challenge</h2>



While it is possible to better manage rat populations through improved urban planning and public education, complete eradication is unrealistic. 



As <a href="https://umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan</a> conservation scientist Neil Carter pointed out, we can fight them better, but in the end “people need to coexist with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-addresses-the-global-need-for-human-wildlife-coexistence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a> in urban environments, even with rats.”



“Zero rats is impossible," noted Richardson. “But I think an expectation that we need to live with the number of rats that we're seeing in many of these cities is also an unhealthy perspective on this problem.”



In conclusion, this study offers a critical, data-driven look at the complex factors driving rat population growth in urban environments. 



As cities continue to warm, expand, and densify, the challenge of managing rat populations will require innovative and sustainable approaches that focus on prevention and public awareness.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.ads6782" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



Image Credit: AP Photo/Mary Altaffer



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Rat populations are increasing in cities as temperatures rise

A new study reveals that rat infestations in many cities...

For many years, paleontologists believed that the fossilization process completely eradicated any original organic molecules in ancient remains.&nbsp;



Now, scientists at the University of Liverpool have discovered that some Mesozoic fossils still preserve vestiges of their original organic compounds. 



The findings shed light on how proteins like collagen may survive for millions of years within dinosaur bones.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-skepticism-to-discovery">From skepticism to discovery</h2>



The research was focused on a well-preserved hip bone from an Edmontosaurus - a duck-billed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-did-dinosaurs-come-from-missing-fossils-hold-the-secret/">dinosaur</a> excavated from the Hell Creek Formation in South Dakota. 



The fossil, weighing roughly 50 pounds (23 kilograms), is part of the University of Liverpool’s collections. 



The researchers used advanced mass spectrometry and protein sequencing to detect and analyze signs of bone collagen in the sample. 



The results contradict the long-held assumption that any organic material found in fossils must be modern contamination.



“This research shows beyond doubt that organic biomolecules, such as proteins like collagen, appear to be present in some fossils,” said Professor Steve Taylor, chair of the Mass Spectrometry Research Group at the <a href="https://www.liverpool.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Liverpool</a>.



“Our results have far-reaching implications. Firstly, it refutes the hypothesis that any organics found in fossils must result from contamination.”&nbsp;



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-dinosaur-collagen-survived-the-test-of-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">collagen</a> remnants offer a rare glimpse into dinosaur biology, opening up new questions about what biochemical information might still be gleaned from well-preserved fossils.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-molecules-survive-fossilization-nbsp">Ancient molecules survive fossilization&nbsp;</h2>



Collagen is the primary structural protein in the bones of living organisms. After millions of years, one would expect it to be replaced by minerals or otherwise degraded.&nbsp;



However, the study demonstrates that not only can collagen molecules survive fossilization but they can also remain detectable if the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-capture-a-turning-point-in-the-evolution-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> is of exceptional quality.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/dinosaur-fossil_collagen-discovery_credit-ULiverpool_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/dinosaur-fossil_collagen-discovery_credit-ULiverpool_1s.webp" alt="Edmontosaurus sp. sacrum (UOL GEO.1) from Harding County, SD, Hell Creek formation, main fragment shown. Credit: University of Liverpool" class="wp-image-1958814"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Edmontosaurus sp. sacrum (UOL GEO.1) from Harding County, SD, Hell Creek formation, main fragment shown. Credit: University of Liverpool</figcaption></figure>



The team’s analyses involved a combination of protein sequencing, tandem mass spectrometry, and imaging techniques to characterize the Edmontosaurus bone.&nbsp;



These methods allowed the experts to pinpoint markers of collagen and confirm that the protein fragments were indeed vestiges from the ancient organism.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-record-of-dinosaur-physiology-nbsp">Hidden record of dinosaur physiology&nbsp;</h2>



The discovery suggests the value of re-examining historical fossil collections for similarly overlooked molecular structures. 



Fossils previously dismissed as fully mineralized may still contain pockets of original organic material, offering a wealth of new insights.



Taylor emphasized the potential of cross-polarized light microscopy images that have been archived for decades.&nbsp;



“These images may reveal intact patches of bone collagen, potentially offering a ready-made trove of fossil candidates for further protein analysis,” said Taylor.&nbsp;



The potential to reanalyze these images with modern techniques could reveal a hidden record of dinosaur physiology, including growth rates and metabolic traits.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-dinosaur-research">Implications for dinosaur research</h2>



This breakthrough has major implications for paleontology and molecular biology. With access to ancient proteins, scientists can refine dinosaur phylogenies by comparing molecular signatures.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/dinosaur-fossil_collagen-discovery_credit-ULiverpool_2m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/dinosaur-fossil_collagen-discovery_credit-ULiverpool_2s.webp" alt="Edmontosaurus sp. sacrum (UOL GEO.1) from Harding County, SD, Hell Creek formation, main fragment shown. Credit: University of Liverpool" class="wp-image-1958816"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Edmontosaurus sp. sacrum (UOL GEO.1) from Harding County, SD, Hell Creek formation, main fragment shown. Credit: University of Liverpool</figcaption></figure>



Furthermore, experts could uncover the biochemical pathways that enabled the preservation of organic compounds over millions of years.



“The findings inform the intriguing mystery of how these proteins have managed to persist in fossils for so long,” said Taylor.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-confirming-the-presence-of-dinosaur-collagen-nbsp">Confirming the presence of dinosaur collagen&nbsp;</h2>



For the investigation, researchers from multiple institutions specialized in different analytic methods.&nbsp;



The Mass Spectrometry Research Group performed in-depth protein sequencing, while other collaborators contributed to high-resolution imaging, additional data verification, and advanced mass spectrometry.&nbsp;



These collective efforts reinforced the conclusion that the collagen was not a result of contamination, but an ancient molecular relic.



In addition, the successful detection of collagen alpha-1 fragments - one of the most fundamental protein forms in bone - came from the Center for Proteome Research at the University of Liverpool.&nbsp;



Experts at <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCLA</a> contributed tandem mass spectrometry capabilities to detect and quantify markers that definitively establish the presence of ancient collagen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions-nbsp">Future research directions&nbsp;</h2>



Even though the study resolves a long-standing debate about the possibility of finding original organic molecules in dinosaur fossils, it also opens new avenues for research.&nbsp;



By pinpointing the conditions under which these molecular remnants can remain stable, scientists might be able to target specific specimens or geological settings where surviving biomolecules are most likely to be found.



There is growing interest in how such data can illuminate dinosaur evolutionary pathways and relationships.&nbsp;



If collagen or other proteins can be consistently identified across a variety of specimens, it may become possible to conduct molecular-level comparisons between species.



Ultimately, these findings prompt reexamination of museum and field collections worldwide, suggesting that the deeper secrets of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/timeline-of-lifes-evolution-extended-by-nearly-1-5-billion-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient life</a> - once deemed lost - may still lie hidden within the fossil record.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.analchem.4c03115#" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Analytical Chemistry</a>.



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Collagen discovered in 70 million-year-old dinosaur fossil

For many years, paleontologists believed that the fossilization process completely...

Dinosaurs,In,The,Forest.,This,Is,A,3d,Render,Illustration

The story of how dinosaurs came to rule our planet has captivated scientists and the public alike for generations. Now, an intriguing new study on fossils suggests we might be looking in the wrong places for their earliest ancestors. 



While we've found countless dinosaur fossils in places like Argentina and Zimbabwe, the very first dinosaurs might have emerged from the steamy equatorial regions of ancient Earth - areas that today make up the Amazon rainforest, Congo basin, and Sahara Desert.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gap-in-the-dinosaur-fossil-record">Gap in the dinosaur fossil record</h2>



The oldest known dinosaur fossils date back around 230 million years and have been found in Argentina, Brazil, and Zimbabwe. 



However, the differences between these fossils indicate that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-tracks-discovered-on-uks-dinosaur-highway/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> had already been evolving for millions of years before these specimens emerged. This implies an even earlier origin, but direct fossil evidence of this has yet to be found.



The new study, published in the journal Current Biology, addresses this issue by using advanced modeling techniques to account for gaps in the fossil record.



The researchers analyzed fossils, evolutionary trees, and ancient geography to reconstruct the likely emergence of dinosaurs. 



Instead of assuming that fossils have not been found in certain areas because they never existed there, the study treats those regions as simply missing data.



“Dinosaurs are well studied but we still don’t really know where they came from. The fossil record has such large gaps that it can’t be taken at face value,” noted study lead author Joel Heath from <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-dinosaurs-and-their-world">First dinosaurs and their world</h2>



According to the study, the earliest dinosaurs likely appeared in western low-latitude Gondwana, a region that was hot and dry, resembling today’s deserts and savannas. This challenges the previous assumption that dinosaurs first evolved in more temperate environments. 



Despite the study’s findings, no fossils from these early dinosaurs have been discovered in the Amazon or central Africa. 



Heath suggests that this is due to a combination of accessibility issues and a lack of focused research in these regions.



The world of early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-evolved-feathers-for-much-more-than-just-flying/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> was vastly different from the one their descendants would later dominate. During the Late Triassic period, dinosaurs were only a minor part of a diverse ecosystem filled with other reptilian creatures. 



These included the ancestors of crocodiles, known as pseudosuchians, some of which grew up to 10 meters (33 feet) long. 



Another major group in this prehistoric world was pterosaurs, the first vertebrates to develop powered flight. These flying reptiles would eventually evolve into species as large as modern fighter jets.



In contrast to their massive successors like Diplodocus or Tyrannosaurus rex, the earliest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-extinction-of-dinosaurs-was-not-caused-by-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> were much smaller, typically the size of a chicken or a medium-sized dog.



They walked on two legs, making them agile hunters and scavengers, and most were likely omnivorous. Their small size and adaptability may have helped them survive in the challenging environments of early Gondwana.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-rise-of-dinosaurs">The rise of dinosaurs</h2>



For millions of years, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-triassic-fossil-gondwanax-paraisensis-may-rewrite-history-of-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> remained in the shadow of their reptilian cousins. That changed around 201 million years ago, when a series of massive volcanic eruptions led to the end-Triassic mass extinction. 



This catastrophe wiped out many of the dominant reptile species, creating an ecological vacuum that the surviving dinosaurs quickly filled. 



With their competitors gone, dinosaurs began to spread and diversify, eventually becoming the dominant land animals for the next 135 million years.



The modeling study suggests that dinosaurs and other reptiles may have first evolved in low-latitude Gondwana before spreading outward. 



They expanded southward into what is now Argentina and Zimbabwe, and northward into Laurasia, the northern supercontinent that would later split into Europe, Asia, and North America. 



This idea is supported by fossil evidence showing that some of the dinosaurs’ closest relatives, including early crocodile-like reptiles, were found in northern Laurasia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-missing-link-in-dinosaur-evolution">Missing link in dinosaur evolution</h2>



One of the study’s key findings concerns the evolutionary relationship between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-the-worlds-best-preserved-psittacosaurus-dinosaurs-die/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early dinosaurs</a> and their close relatives. There is ongoing debate about how different groups of dinosaurs evolved from their reptilian ancestors. 



To address this, the researchers tested their model against three different evolutionary trees. The strongest support for a Gondwanan origin came from a model that classified silesaurids, traditionally seen as distant cousins of dinosaurs, as direct ancestors of ornithischians.



This finding is significant because ornithischians - one of the three major dinosaur groups, which later included the stegosaurs and Triceratops species - are mysteriously absent from the fossil record in the earliest years of dinosaur history.



If silesaurids were indeed their ancestors, this would help fill a major gap in the evolutionary tree and provide a clearer picture of how dinosaurs diversified over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaurs-and-climate-adaptation">Dinosaurs and climate adaptation</h2>



The study also sheds light on how dinosaurs adapted to different climates over millions of years. “Our results suggest early dinosaurs may have been well adapted to hot and arid environments,” noted Professor Philip Mannion, a senior author of the study.



This is particularly evident in sauropods, the group that includes massive plant-eaters like Brontosaurus and Diplodocus. These dinosaurs appear to have retained their preference for warm climates, remaining in lower latitudes throughout their existence.



On the other hand, theropods - the group that includes T. rex and modern birds - and ornithischians seem to have developed the ability to generate their own body heat.



This adaptation allowed them to expand into colder regions, including the polar regions, by the time of the Jurassic period. This shift in climate tolerance may have contributed to their long-term evolutionary success.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-dinosaur-fossils">Future research on dinosaur fossils</h2>



Despite the study’s compelling findings, direct fossil evidence of the earliest dinosaurs in the Amazon, Congo, or Sahara remains absent. 



Future expeditions to these regions may uncover this elusive evidence that could redefine our understanding of dinosaur origins.



If dinosaurs did originate in equatorial Gondwana, as the study suggests, their earliest ancestors may still lie buried beneath the dense rainforests of the Amazon or the shifting sands of the Sahara. 



These areas remain some of the least-explored fossil sites on Earth, meaning that the missing chapters of dinosaur evolution may still be waiting to be revealed.



As paleontologists continue to refine their understanding of early dinosaur evolution, this study highlights the importance of exploring new frontiers in fossil research. 



The true story of dinosaur origins is still being written, and future discoveries in these regions could change everything we thought we knew about the dawn of the dinosaurs.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(24)01722-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Where did dinosaurs come from? Scientists think they figured it out

The story of how dinosaurs came to rule our planet...

The ocean is home to some of the most fascinating creatures on Earth, and among them, sea turtles hold a special place. These ancient creatures have navigated the world’s waters for millions of years, surviving mass extinctions and dramatic environmental shifts.



Yet, in recent decades, the survival of sea turtles has been tested like never before, highlighting the critical need for conservation efforts. 



Climate change, habitat destruction, and human activities have posed significant threats to their existence.



A joint study conducted by researchers from <a href="https://www.deakin.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Deakin University</a> and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (<a href="https://www.noaa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NOAA</a>) sheds light on the conservation progress and ongoing struggles of sea turtle populations worldwide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-success-of-sea-turtles">Conservation success of sea turtles</h2>



"Sea turtles are a beacon of marine conservation success, with many nesting populations showing remarkable recoveries," said Graeme Hays, a Deakin Distinguished Professor and Chair in Marine Science.



The researchers found that while the recovery is promising, it is far from complete. The study highlights the delicate balance between human intervention and natural resilience in ensuring the survival of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-sea-turtle-day-celebrating-100-million-years-of-majesty/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iconic creatures</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-efforts-yield-positive-results">Conservation efforts yield positive results</h2>



The resurgence of sea turtle populations is closely tied to specific conservation strategies. For instance, reducing artificial lighting on beaches has helped prevent hatchlings from becoming disoriented. 



Additionally, the adoption of turtle-safe fishing practices has played a pivotal role in reversing population declines. In some regions, hunting has decreased as awareness about conservation ethics has grown. 



Former poachers, once contributors to the decline, now work as eco-tour guides, offering tourists a chance to witness nesting turtles. This shift reflects changing public attitudes toward these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rainfall-impacts-the-size-of-sea-turtle-hatchlings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine animals</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stabilizing-sea-turtle-populations">Stabilizing sea turtle populations </h2>



Historically, sea turtles were abundant in places like the Caribbean, where they were so numerous that they often collided with ships at night. 



Overhunting drastically reduced their numbers, with estimates suggesting a 95% decline in green sea turtles in the region.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/sea-turtle-threats_comeback-success-story_illustration_credit-NOAA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/sea-turtle-threats_comeback-success-story_illustration_credit-NOAA_1s.webp" alt="Global threats to sea turtles shown here in this graphic illustration. Credit: Nature Reviews Biodiversity (2025)." class="wp-image-1958800"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Global threats to sea turtles shown here in this graphic illustration. Credit: Nature Reviews Biodiversity (2025).</figcaption></figure>



Global declines were driven by market-driven hunting, fishing net entanglement, and habitat loss. Legal protections and conservation initiatives have since helped stabilize and even grow populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-promising-trends-across-species">Promising trends across species</h2>



The scientists analyzed nesting records and other data to assess the state of sea turtle populations worldwide. The findings reveal predominantly positive trends across species and regions.



A 2017 analysis of 299 annual abundance time series showed that population increases were three times more frequent than decreases. By 2024, this trend had strengthened, with increases occurring six times more often than declines.



Four out of five regional green <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/leatherback-sea-turtles-where-the-worlds-largest-turtles-go-to-eat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea turtle populations</a> are growing, and loggerhead nesting sites have shown significant improvements. On Sal Island in Cape Verde, for example, loggerhead nests surged from approximately 500 in 2008 to 35,000 in 2020. 



While data on species like hawksbill, olive ridley, Kemp's ridley, and flatback turtles is limited, most available records indicate growth. These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-turtle-day-protecting-turtles-tortoises-and-their-vanishing-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> remain protected under U.S. and international endangered species regulations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-adaptive-responses">Climate change and adaptive responses</h2>



Rising temperatures pose a significant threat to sea turtles, particularly by skewing sex ratios toward females. However, emerging research offers hope.



Loggerhead turtles in the Mediterranean, for instance, have been observed shifting their nesting sites to cooler areas. This behavioral adaptation could help maintain balanced sex ratios and reduce the impacts of climate change. 



"When harmful human activities are curtailed, species can recover and thrive," noted Dr. Jeffrey Seminoff, an expert at the NOAA Fisheries' <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/about/southwest-fisheries-science-center" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Southwest Science Center</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-priorities-for-sea-turtle-conservation">Priorities for sea turtle conservation</h2>



Looking ahead, the experts have outlined key priorities to ensure the continued recovery of sea turtles.



These priorities include promoting resilience to climate change, reducing bycatch and illegal hunting, understanding the impacts of pollution, and ensuring sufficient foraging habitats like seagrass meadows.



"This success story demonstrates that humanity has the ability to reverse biodiversity loss when we commit to concerted conservation efforts," noted Professor Hays.



The conservation of sea turtles serves as a powerful reminder of what can be achieved through dedication and collaboration. 



As conservationists continue their work, the hope is that these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-level-rise-threatens-turtle-breeding-grounds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient mariners</a> will continue to thrive, inspiring future generations to value and protect the natural world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s44358-024-00011-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Reviews Biodiversity</a>.



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Sea turtles show signs of recovery, but conservation issues remain

The ocean is home to some of the most fascinating...

Scientists have found that insect frass - a blend of excreta, feed, and molted skins - is far from a mere waste product. Instead, it could play a key role in advancing greener, more sustainable agriculture.



The study was focused on "mini-livestock," including the humble yellow mealworm, the bouncy banded cricket, and the robust black soldier fly.



Often underestimated, these insects are being cultivated as an alternative protein source for animals, playing a crucial role in the shift toward more sustainable agricultural practices. However, what they leave behind may be just as valuable - if not more - than the protein they provide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insect-frass-more-than-just-waste">Insect frass: More than just waste</h2>



Insect frass is a nutrient-rich byproduct of insect farming. In contrast to regular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/beer-byproducts-and-manure-used-to-increase-crop-yields/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">manure</a>, frass is inherently pathogen-poor and rich in nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and carbon.



The nutrients in insect frass make it a promising organic fertilizer that can augment soil health and plant growth without reliance on synthetic fertilizers. This finding sets the stage for a game-changing shift in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/farmers-adopt-regenerative-agriculture-better-soil-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">agriculture</a>.



In previous studies, a team of researchers led by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)’s&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ars.usda.gov/">Agricultural Research Service</a>&nbsp;(ARS) set out to explore the potential benefits of insect frass. 



The results showed that frass can compete with fossil fuel-based fertilizers with its higher carbon and nitrogen content, while being less pathogenic than other animal manures.



Collaborating with partners from the <a href="https://uada.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arkansas System Division of Agriculture</a>, the ARS team further studied the potential of frass as an organic fertilizer when used as a soil amendment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-proof-is-in-the-soil">The proof is in the soil</h2>



The researchers embarked on an intense two-year field study. The results were quite astounding.



Yellow mealworm frass demonstrated impressive capabilities. It managed to double the soil's carbon content while tripling its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-has-too-much-and-too-little-nitrogen-at-the-same-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nitrogen</a> content.



This was significantly higher compared to other sources such as poultry litter and ammonium nitrate. Most importantly, the frass-enriched soil produced similar crop yields and carbon dioxide emission rates.



"Insect frass substantially improved soil fertility which showed its ability to be used as an alternative to inorganic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-emissions-from-fertilizers-could-be-cut-by-80-percent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fertilizers</a>," said Amanda Ashworth, a soil scientist at the ARS Poultry Production and Product Safety Research Unit in Fayetteville, Arkansas. 



"This is important since insect farming is on the rise and circular agricultural systems (agricultural by-products that are recycled back into production systems) can be sustainable avenues for growing foods in the future."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-agriculture">The future of agriculture </h2>



The question is, are we ready to embrace this change? As the world witnesses an increased demand for sustainable protein sources, the insect farming industry is experiencing a surge in growth. 



According to the Global Edible Insects Market Forecast to 2030 report, the industry is set to grow at an annual pace of 28%, with an anticipated market value of $8 billion U.S. dollars by 2030.



Insect frass stands as a powerful catalyst for change, moving us towards a greener future. It promises a sustainable alternative in agriculture - one that makes use of waste to enhance our environment and feed our growing populations.



The research shows that insect frass is not just waste - it's a potential goldmine, waiting to be discovered and harnessed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insect-frass-and-regenerative-farming">Insect frass and regenerative farming</h2>



As the agricultural industry shifts toward more eco-friendly practices, insect frass is being recorgnized as an important player in regenerative farming. 



In contrast to traditional fertilizers, which can degrade the soil and contaminate water, insect frass promotes microbial activity and improves soil structure. 



This natural byproduct not only replenishes essential nutrients but also supports long-term <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-soils-produce-a-symphony-of-sounds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil health</a> by promoting beneficial bacteria and fungi.



With fears of fertilizer shortages and environmental damage due to synthetic alternatives looming, insect frass presents a promising alternative.



So far, farmers who have embraced this organic amendment are reporting greater crop resilience, reduced chemical input dependence, and soil biodiversity improvements. 



As research continues, insect frass may ultimately transform the way food is grown, making agriculture not only more productive but truly sustainable.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-87075-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Future of farming: Insect waste reshapes soil health

Scientists have found that insect frass - a blend of...

In India, tigers have not only survived but made a remarkable comeback through conservation efforts. Despite the challenges posed by a growing population and shrinking habitats, the number of wild tigers is on the rise.



This success story is rooted in a mix of ecological restoration, economic strategies, and political stability. Equally significant is the deep cultural reverence for tigers that has allowed humans and predators to coexist peacefully.



Protecting an endangered species like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-tiger-day-worldwide-support-for-tiger-conservation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tiger</a>, which can pose a threat to humans, is no easy task. Yet, India has managed to strike a balance. 



By combining protected reserves with shared landscapes where tigers and people live side by side, the country has achieved a 30% increase in its tiger population over the past two decades.



A recent study reveals that India now hosts around 3,700 tigers, making up 75% of the world’s wild tiger population. This proves that even in densely populated regions, it is possible to safeguard large carnivores.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dual-approach-to-tiger-conservation">Dual approach to tiger conservation</h2>



India’s tiger conservation strategy blends two distinct approaches: strictly protected reserves and multi-use landscapes where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/could-captive-tigers-help-restore-wild-populations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tigers</a> and humans share space. This dual model benefits both wildlife and local communities.



“The advantage of combining these two methods is that reserves act as a source of tigers for surrounding areas. And if coexistence no longer works, the reserves provide a fallback option - ensuring that tigers are not at risk of extinction,” explained study co-author Professor Ninad Mungi of <a href="https://international.au.dk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aarhus University</a>.



Today, 45% of India’s tiger-inhabited landscapes are shared with approximately 60 million people. This unique arrangement highlights the importance of finding harmony between human needs and wildlife preservation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-enables-coexistence">What enables coexistence?</h2>



Researchers emphasize that human population density alone does not determine whether <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiger-numbers-have-jumped-by-250-in-thailand/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tigers</a> can thrive. 



Instead, factors such as lifestyle, economic conditions, and cultural attitudes play a crucial role. In relatively prosperous regions, ecotourism and government compensation schemes help generate income, increasing tolerance for tigers. 



For instance, when farmers lose cattle to tigers, they receive financial compensation from the government. This turns a potential loss into a gain, encouraging acceptance of the predators.



The study also identifies specific conservation conditions that support thriving tiger populations: proximity to reserves, abundant prey, suitable habitats, and moderate economic prosperity. 



These elements create an environment where both humans and tigers can flourish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-in-conflict-affected-areas">Challenges in conflict-affected areas</h2>



However, not all regions are equally conducive to tiger conservation. In rural areas plagued by extreme poverty, many people depend on forests for food, firewood, and other resources.



“In the past, foraging in the forest was sustainable. But now, with more people and less space for tigers, conflicts are increasing,” said Mungi.



Additionally, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-report-disturbing-details-about-the-state-of-earths-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tigers</a> are scarce in areas affected by armed conflict. Nearly half of the regions where tigers have disappeared are in districts impacted by the Naxal conflict. When governance weakens due to conflict, poaching and habitat destruction become major threats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-attacks-and-safety-nets">Rare attacks and safety nets</h2>



Despite their fearsome reputation, tigers rarely attack humans. On average, about 100 people are killed by tigers each year in India. If such an incident occurs, the government provides financial compensation to the victim’s family.



Moreover, if a tiger develops a habit of attacking humans, it is captured and relocated to a reserve or zoo. These measures ensure that both human safety and tiger conservation are prioritized.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-tiger-conservation">Lessons for tiger conservation</h2>



India’s conservation model offers valuable lessons for other countries facing similar challenges. 



In Europe, for example, wolves attacking livestock have sparked debates about balancing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-using-technology-to-protect-our-natural-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife protection</a> with human interests. India’s experience may inspire new strategies that safeguard both predators and farmers’ livelihoods.



According to Mungi, there are parallels between India and Europe when it comes to conserving large carnivores.



“In both India and Europe, protected areas are small − only 200-300 km² − and only a small fraction is strictly off-limits to humans. The debate in Europe and North America has been whether to focus solely on protected areas reserved for wildlife," said Mungi.



"It is critical to have such inviolate areas, where large carnivores are insulated from any human control. But a significant gain can be achieved by going an extra mile and fostering a culture of coexistence beyond protected areas. India offers an alternative by integrating shared landscapes."



“There are, of course, cultural challenges, but culture can change over time. India’s experience proves that large predators can survive in a modern world - if we are willing to think creatively and find a balance between protection and coexistence,” Mungi adds.



India’s success with tiger conservation shows that coexistence is not only possible but also beneficial for both humans and wildlife. By embracing innovative solutions and respecting cultural values, other nations can learn from this inspiring example.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adk4827" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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India’s wild tigers are thriving with smart conservation efforts

In India, tigers have not only survived but made a...

As insect populations decline globally in a phenomenon some have described as an "insect apocalypse," biologists are racing to understand how insects are reacting to climate change. 



A recent study of Colorado grasshoppers provides valuable insights into this issue, particularly how their size has changed over time.



While the answers are not straightforward, researchers believe they already possess much of the knowledge needed to make predictions about which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robotic-insects-may-be-the-future-of-farming-and-plant-pollination/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> will thrive and which will struggle in the long term.



The findings stem from the rediscovery of 13,000 grasshoppers collected between 1958 and 1960 by a biologist at the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colorado Boulder</a>.



After the scientist's death in 1973, his collection was preserved by his son and eventually donated to the CU Museum. It remained untouched until 2005 when César Nufio, then a postdoctoral fellow, stumbled upon it. 



Recognizing its potential, Nufio began curating the collection and revisiting the original sites to gather new specimens.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-grasshopper-size-in-changing-climate">Grasshopper size in changing climate</h2>



Nufio and his colleagues, including Caroline Williams, Lauren Buckley, and Monica Sheffer, analyzed how six species of grasshopper had changed in size over 65 years.



Since insects are cold-blooded and rely on external temperatures for development, their growth is highly sensitive to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-play-a-much-bigger-role-in-seed-dispersal-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental changes</a>. 



Contrary to the assumption that animals might shrink to reduce heat stress, some grasshopper species actually grew larger over time. These species benefited from an earlier spring, allowing them to feed on fresh vegetation.



However, this advantage was limited to species that overwinter as juveniles, known as nymphal diapausers. These grasshoppers could take advantage of early spring conditions to grow faster. 



In contrast, species that hatch from eggs laid in the fall - egg diapausers - did not fare as well. As vegetation dried up earlier in the season, these species became smaller over the decades.



"This research emphasizes that there will certainly be species that are winners and losers, but subgroups within those species populations, depending on their ecological or environmental context, will have different responses," noted Sheffer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-winners-and-losers">Predicting winners and losers</h2>



The researchers based many of their predictions on the life cycles of the grasshoppers and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-boost-plant-evolution-in-surprising-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental conditions</a> of the study site. 



By reviewing existing knowledge about the species' natural history and elevational gradients, they were able to anticipate some of the observed trends.



"We sat down and looked at all that was known about the system, such as elevational gradients and how that should modify responses and how different grasshoppers might respond, with all the wealth of information we knew about their natural history. And while not all our predictions were supported, many of them actually were," explained Williams.



Understanding which species will succeed or fail in a changing climate has been a significant challenge. According to Buckley, this study offers principles that could improve future predictions and help address ecosystem changes caused by climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-historical-data-on-grasshopper-size">Historical data on grasshopper size</h2>



The grasshopper collection was originally assembled by entomologist <a href="https://cumuseum-archive.colorado.edu/Research/Entomology/ento_coll_orthoptera.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gordon Alexander</a> during three summers in the late 1950s. He meticulously documented the timing of six life stages of the grasshoppers, creating a detailed record. 



After his untimely death in 1973, the specimens were stored away until Nufio rediscovered them in 2005. Recognizing their value, he initiated a resurvey of the same areas, ultimately collecting around 17,000 new specimens.



Museum collections like Alexander's have proven invaluable for studying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chemicals-are-changing-insects-in-subtle-yet-deadly-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>'s long-term effects. 



For example, Joseph Grinnell's surveys of California wildlife from 1904 to 1940 provided a baseline for comparing changes a century later. Similarly, Nufio's work highlights the importance of preserving historical data for modern research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-grasshopper-size-changes-across-elevations">Grasshopper size changes across elevations</h2>



The researchers focused on short-horned grasshoppers from the Acrididae family, categorizing them based on their life cycles. 



Nymphal diapausers, which mature as early as May, grew larger at lower elevations. In contrast, early and late emergers from overwintering eggs decreased in size over the decades at these elevations.



"For those that come out in late August, when it's very crispy and dry and we get very hot temperatures, we saw the most negative impacts of climate change," Williams noted.



Surprisingly, none of the species increased in size at higher elevations, despite greater summer warming in these areas. This may be due to snow delaying early-season plant growth, reducing food availability. 



The findings align with experiments where grasshoppers were caged at various elevations to study their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-leaf-eating-insects-have-a-huge-impact-on-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adaptation</a> to heat and dryness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-research">Broader implications of the research </h2>



The study's results suggest that some grasshoppers can benefit from warming by growing larger and emerging earlier, while others face stress and shrink in size. Similar trends have been observed in other insects, such as butterflies, according to Buckley. 



"We find a pretty similar message with butterflies, which is hopeful to me, in that if we can consider some basic biological principles, we really increase our ability to predict climate change responses," she said.



The team plans to continue exploring the metabolic, biochemical, and genetic factors driving these size changes. 



"Using those museum collections allowed us to go back in time to compare exactly the same sites - there hadn't been any changes in the land use over this 60-year period of warming - using exactly the same methodology," said Williams. 



"Having those unique historical specimens enabled us to look at the changes through time."



This study highlights the complexity of predicting climate change impacts on ecosystems and highlights the critical role of long-term data in unraveling these challenges.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3002805" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Biology</a>.



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Grasshopper size changes in response to shifting climate

As insect populations decline globally in a phenomenon some have...

Artificial,Insemination,,In,Vitro,Fertilization,Ivf,Of,Human,Egg,Cell

In a breakthrough achievement, a team of researchers has successfully engineered a bi-paternal mouse - a mouse with two dads - that survived until adulthood.&nbsp;



The experts targeted specific imprinting genes to overcome key barriers that previously prevented unisexual reproduction in mammals.



More specifically, by modifying a set of genes involved in reproduction, the experts successfully bypassed developmental roadblocks that had historically halted bi-paternal embryo growth before birth.



The research team was led by Wei Li, a professor of genetic engineering at the <a href="https://english.cas.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a> (CAS) in Beijing.



“This work will help to address a number of limitations in stem cell and regenerative medicine research,” noted Professor Li.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-barriers-to-unisexual-reproduction">Genetic barriers to unisexual reproduction</h2>



Scientists have attempted to create bi-paternal mice before, but previous efforts failed at early developmental stages. 



The biggest challenge was associated with imprinting genes, which regulate gene expression and play a crucial role in mammalian reproduction.



“The unique characteristics of imprinting genes have led scientists to believe that they are a fundamental barrier to unisexual reproduction in mammals,” explained Qi Zhou of CAS, a corresponding author of the study.&nbsp;



“Even when constructing bi-maternal or bi-paternal embryos artificially, they fail to develop properly and stall at some point during development due to these genes.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-creating-a-mammal-with-two-dads">Creating a mammal with two dads</h2>



Earlier approaches involved generating oocytes (egg cells) from male pluripotent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-first-live-birth-of-a-chimeric-monkey-created-with-stem-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stem cells</a> using ovarian organoids. These artificially derived oocytes were then fertilized with sperm from another male.&nbsp;



However, when homologous chromosomes - which separate during meiosis to form sperm and egg cells - came from the same sex, imprinting abnormalities emerged. This led to severe developmental defects.



To overcome this, the researchers targeted 20 key imprinting genes using various <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-inspire-a-safer-method-of-editing-human-genes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gene-editing</a> techniques, including frameshift mutations, gene deletions, and regulatory region modifications.



This genetic modification not only enabled the successful creation of bi-paternal mice, but also improved stem cell pluripotency, making them more stable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-in-unisexual-reproduction-nbsp">Breakthrough in unisexual reproduction&nbsp;</h2>



By precisely modifying imprinting genes, the team enhanced embryonic stem cell viability, allowing the bi-paternal mice to survive until birth - a feat that had never been achieved at this scale.



“These findings provide strong evidence that imprinting abnormalities are the main barrier to mammalian unisexual reproduction,” said study co-author Guan-Zheng Luo of Sun Yat-sen University in Guangzhou.&nbsp;



“This approach can significantly improve the developmental outcomes of embryonic stem cells and cloned animals, paving a promising path for the advancement of regenerative medicine.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-challenges-remain">Many challenges remain</h2>



Despite this success, the study acknowledges several significant challenges. The birth rate was low, with only 11.8% of viable embryos developing to term.&nbsp;



Health and lifespan concerns were evident, as many surviving mice exhibited growth abnormalities and shortened lifespans.&nbsp;



Additionally, the bi-paternal mice that reached adulthood were sterile and unable to reproduce. However, they showed increased cloning efficiency, suggesting some unique biological properties.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-survival-rates-of-bi-parental-embryos">Survival rates of bi-parental embryos</h2>



The researchers aim to further refine imprinting gene modifications to improve the survival rates of mice with two dads.



“Further modifications to the imprinting genes could potentially facilitate the generation of healthy bi-paternal mice capable of producing viable gametes and lead to new therapeutic strategies for imprinting-related diseases,” said study co-author Zhi-Kun Li of CAS.



Additionally, the team plans to expand these experiments to larger mammals, including monkeys, to investigate whether this genetic engineering approach could be applied beyond rodents.&nbsp;



However, this transition presents a significant challenge, as imprinting gene combinations differ between species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-same-sex-human-couples">Implications for same-sex human couples</h2>



If scientists one day manage to safely and ethically adapt <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crispr-gene-editing-gets-a-revolutionary-upgrade-with-new-tool/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">this kind of technology</a> for human use, it could completely reshape how society views family. 



The traditional definitions of parenthood might expand to include a broader range of family structures, reflecting a more inclusive understanding of what it means to be a family.



Of course, this possibility comes with a host of ethical and legal challenges. Society would need to have serious conversations about the long-term safety and health of children born through these methods.



In addition, laws would have to be written and revised around parental rights and consent for genetically <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-grow-models-of-human-embryos-in-the-lab-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">engineered embryos</a>.



Beyond the legalities, this breakthrough would likely spark a cultural shift. It could challenge long-held beliefs about reproduction and gender roles, leading us to reexamine our values around what constitutes a family.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-stem-cell-research">Future of stem cell research</h2>



The study raises critical ethical and scientific questions about the future of unisexual reproduction in mammals.&nbsp;



While these results demonstrate the possibility of bi-paternal reproduction, applying similar technologies to human reproduction remains highly restricted.



The International Society for Stem Cell Research (<a href="https://www.isscr.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ISSCR</a>) explicitly prohibits heritable genome editing for reproductive purposes, as well as the use of human stem cell-derived gametes for reproduction, citing safety concerns and ethical implications.



As the field of stem cell engineering and reproductive genetics advances, this research marks a major milestone in understanding genetic imprinting, developmental biology, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-brittle-star-tissue-could-transform-regenerative-medicine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">regenerative medicine</a>.&nbsp;



However, many hurdles - both biological and ethical - remain before such breakthroughs could have practical applications beyond the laboratory.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.isscr.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell Stem Cell</a>.



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Mouse with two dads survives to adulthood,  major implications for same-sex human couples

In a breakthrough achievement, a team of researchers has successfully...

A recent study has confirmed what scientists have long suspected - the devastating link between climate change, melting sea ice, and the decline of polar bears. 



Unlike previous research that only highlighted correlations, this study presents a direct, measurable connection.



For the first time, researchers have developed a model that precisely demonstrates how shrinking sea ice leads to polar bear <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-doesnt-stick-to-polar-bear-fur-but-why/">population</a> collapse in Western Hudson Bay.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-polar-bears-are-starving">Polar bears are starving </h2>



A changing climate has dramatically altered the Arctic landscape, forcing polar bears to spend more time on land instead of hunting seals on the ice. 



As their primary food source becomes less accessible, the bears enter longer fasting periods, leading to declining health and population numbers.



“A loss of sea ice means <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-bear-conservation-leaps-forward-with-new-tracking-technology/">bears</a> spend less time hunting seals and more time fasting on land,” said Louise Archer, a postdoctoral researcher and lead author of the study.



This prolonged fasting drains polar bears' energy reserves, reducing their ability to reproduce and raise cubs. Without enough stored fat, female bears struggle to give birth and nurse their young. Over time, this energy deficit has led to a sharp population decline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-energy-loss-in-polar-bears">Energy loss in polar bears</h2>



To understand the impact of climate change on polar bears, researchers developed a “bio-energetic” model that measures how much energy the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-bears-are-struggling-to-survive-longer-summers/">bears</a> gain from hunting and how much they need to grow and reproduce. 



This model is unique because it tracks individual polar bears throughout their lives, from cubhood to adulthood.



The model uses over four decades of data from monitoring the Western Hudson Bay polar bear population between 1979 and 2021. 



This long-term dataset allows researchers to analyze trends and predict how continued sea ice loss will affect polar bears in the future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dramatic-polar-bear-population-decline">Dramatic polar bear population decline</h2>



The findings are alarming. The polar bear population in this region has dropped by nearly 50% over the past four decades. 



Body mass has also declined significantly, with adult females weighing 39 kg (86 lbs) less than before and one-year-old cubs losing an average of 26 kg (47 lbs).



“Our model goes one step further than saying there’s a correlation between declining sea ice and population decline,” noted Péter Molnár, associate professor at <a href="https://www.utsc.utoronto.ca/home/">University of Toronto Scarborough</a> and co-author of the study.



“It provides a mechanism that shows what happens when there is less ice, less feeding time and less energy overall. When we run the numbers, we get a near one-to-one match to what we’re seeing in real life.”



This level of accuracy confirms that climate change is the primary driver of polar bear decline, rather than other potential factors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cubs-face-the-greatest-risk">Cubs face the greatest risk</h2>



The research team, which includes experts from <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change.html">Environment and Climate Change Canada</a>, found that cubs are the most vulnerable to the changing conditions. 



Their survival depends on their ability to gain enough weight before their first fasting period, but shorter hunting seasons make this increasingly difficult.



Archer explained that when hunting time is cut short, mother bears cannot produce enough milk, which puts cubs at greater risk. If a cub does not gain enough weight before winter, it has a much lower chance of survival.



Mothers are also giving birth to fewer cubs. Monitoring data shows that litter sizes have decreased by 11% over the past 40 years. Additionally, many mothers are now keeping their cubs for longer periods because the young <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-bears-are-suffering-from-painful-ice-balls-stuck-on-their-feet/">bears</a> are not strong enough to survive on their own.



“It’s pretty simple - the survival of cubs directly impacts the survival of the population,” said Archer. Her research is supported by a Mitacs Elevate postdoctoral fellowship and the non-profit organization <a href="https://polarbearsinternational.org/">Polar Bears International</a>.



The reduced cub survival rate signals a troubling future for polar bears in Western Hudson Bay. If these trends continue, the population could face an even sharper decline in the coming decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warning-for-polar-bears-worldwide">Warning for polar bears worldwide</h2>



Western Hudson Bay has long been seen as an indicator of how climate change affects polar bear populations globally. 



The Arctic is warming at a rate four times faster than the global average, making the survival of these bears even more uncertain.



“This is one of the southernmost populations of polar bears, and it’s been monitored for a long time, so we have very good data to work with,” said Molnár, who specializes in how global warming affects large mammals.



“There’s every reason to believe what is happening to polar bears in this region will also happen to polar bears in other regions, based on projected sea ice loss trajectories. This model basically describes their future.”



With sea ice disappearing at an increasing rate, other polar bear populations will likely face the same challenges as those in Western Hudson Bay. 



Experts warn that unless significant action is taken to address climate change, these majestic animals may struggle to survive in the coming decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-need-for-conservation">Need for conservation</h2>



The researchers hope that their findings will contribute to ongoing conservation efforts and encourage policymakers to take stronger action against climate change.



The bio-energetic model developed for this study could be applied to other polar bear populations to predict future trends and inform conservation strategies. 



By tracking energy intake and expenditure, scientists can gain a clearer picture of how climate change will impact different regions.



Polar bears have long been a symbol of the Arctic, but their future depends on how quickly humanity responds to the challenges posed by global warming. Without intervention, these animals will continue to struggle as their habitat disappears.



The study received funding from the <a href="https://www.nserc-crsng.gc.ca/index_eng.asp">Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada</a> and the <a href="https://www.innovation.ca/">Canada Foundation for Innovation</a>.&nbsp;



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adp3752">Science</a>.



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Polar bears are suffering from an "energy deficit" that is devastating their populations

A recent study has confirmed what scientists have long suspected...

For centuries, humans have selectively bred dogs for specific tasks such as herding, hunting, guarding, and scent detection.&nbsp;



The assumption has been that these breeds developed distinct physical traits, particularly in skull morphology, that make them superior at their assigned tasks.&nbsp;



However, a new study challenges this long-standing belief, suggesting that skull shape does not determine task performance, and that individual personality and behavior play a larger role than previously thought.



Published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adq9590" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>, the study was led by Nicholas Hebdon and Lindsay Waldrop.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-misconceptions-about-dog-performance">Misconceptions about dog performance </h2>



The researchers used advanced 3D reconstruction techniques to analyze 117 skulls from 40 domestic dog breeds and 18 wild canid species. 



The findings revealed substantial overlap in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-dogs-have-larger-brains-than-ancient-dog-breeds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">skull shape</a> across breeds, with no clear structural adaptations for tasks like bite work or scent detection. 



Instead, the research suggests that human breeding preferences have primarily focused on visual traits rather than functional specialization.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dog-skull-shape-and-task-performance">Dog skull shape and task performance</h2>



The study analyzed dog breeds commonly used for bite work and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-nose-is-a-clever-smell-prediction-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scent detection</a>, including those in law enforcement and military roles, where dogs are trained for patrol and tracking.&nbsp;



The researchers compared functional groups as classified by organizations like the <a href="https://www.akc.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Kennel Club</a> (AKC) and the <a href="https://www.ukcdogs.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">United Kennel Club</a> (UKC).



Despite the diversity of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/feeding-habits-shaped-the-skulls-of-humans-and-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">skull shapes</a> in domestic dogs, the study found high morphological overlap in areas related to function, such as the jaw and nasal structures. This suggests that breeds selected for specific tasks are not as physically specialized as once believed.



For example, bite force measurements showed no significant differences between breeds trained for bite work and those that were not, while scent-detection breeds did not have noticeably enhanced olfactory structures compared to other breeds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-and-specialized-tasks">Dogs and specialized tasks</h2>



“In the past 200 years, humans have created hundreds of dog breeds that look really different and are pretty specialized at some tasks like herding, protecting, and detecting odors,” said Lindsay Waldrop, an assistant professor of biological sciences at <a href="https://www.chapman.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chapman University</a>.



“We have assumed that these dogs look different because they are structurally specialized at these tasks, but our study shows that, at least for their skulls, they are not specialized for tasks that involve the skull, such as biting tasks and scent work.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-myths-about-dangerous-breeds">Myths about “dangerous” breeds</h2>



One of the most notable findings refutes a common misconception: that certain dog breeds, such as pit bulls, have unique jaw structures that make them inherently more dangerous.



Waldrop noted that there are many news stories about dogs attacking people badly, and often, specific breeds are targeted in this reporting - such as pit bulls.&nbsp;



“Some people claim that these dogs bite harder than others of the same size or have special features like ‘locking jaws’ that make them especially dangerous to people. Our study shows that this is simply not true. Dogs bred to bite things aren’t structurally different than dogs bred to do other things,” said Waldrop.



Similarly, no distinct skull adaptations were found in dogs bred for scent detection, suggesting that behavioral traits and training play a more significant role in a dog’s ability to track odors than skull morphology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-preferences-and-dog-morphology">Human preferences and dog morphology</h2>



The one exception to the pattern was brachycephalic breeds (e.g., bulldogs and pugs), which have shortened snouts due to human-driven aesthetic selection. However, these modifications were not tied to functional advantages.



“I was most surprised by the overall similarity we see in most of the dog skulls,” said lead author Nicholas Hebdon, a postdoctoral research associate at Chapman University.



“Humans have done so much breeding work to alter the visual appearance of these animals that I honestly expected to see really marked groupings of some kind, and we really didn’t see much of that.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-shapes-skull-morphology">Evolution shapes skull morphology </h2>



In contrast, the study found strong differences between domesticated dog skulls and wild canids, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gray-wolves-are-a-crucial-component-of-the-american-west/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wolves</a> and foxes.&nbsp;



Wild canids have longer snouts relative to their cranial length - a feature typical of species that rely on acute senses, such as smell. This suggests that evolution, rather than selective breeding, shapes skull morphology in ways that align with natural survival needs.



Interestingly, fox skulls showed significant overlap with some terrier breeds, which were historically bred for pest control. This structural similarity may reflect functional convergence between wild predators and domestic dogs specialized for hunting small prey.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breeds-and-working-dog-selection">Breeds and working dog selection</h2>



The study challenges the notion that physical traits alone determine working dog ability, emphasizing that behavioral traits and training are more influential.



Recent research has shown that breed-associated behaviors are partially heritable, meaning that some behavioral tendencies - such as herding instincts or scent-tracking abilities - may have genetic components.&nbsp;



However, the new findings suggest that observable behavior and trainability are more critical factors than skull structure in determining a dog's suitability for specialized tasks.



This could impact how working dogs are bred and selected, particularly in fields such as law enforcement, search and rescue, and service dog training.&nbsp;



Rather than selecting dogs based on physical traits alone, trainers may benefit from assessing personality, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cracking-canine-cognitive-code-everyday-dog-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive ability</a>, and responsiveness to training as primary selection criteria.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-perspective-on-canine-evolution">New perspective on canine evolution</h2>



The study’s findings redefine how we understand dog specialization and selective breeding. While humans have significantly altered the visual appearance of domestic dogs over centuries, functional adaptations may not be as pronounced as previously thought.



By debunking misconceptions about breed-based functional superiority, these findings open the door for more effective, evidence-based approaches to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-training-is-more-effective-when-nice-voice-tone-is-used/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dog training</a>, breeding, and working dog selection.&nbsp;



Rather than focusing on appearance-based stereotypes, future studies and breeding programs may place greater emphasis on behavioral and cognitive traits - a shift that could benefit both dogs and the people who depend on them.



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Dog breed does not define performance and ability 

For centuries, humans have selectively bred dogs for specific tasks...

Sharks and rays have inhabited Earth’s oceans for about 450 million years. These cartilaginous fish have survived five mass extinctions, adapting to environmental changes that wiped out countless other species.



Despite their resilience, modern threats endanger their survival like never before. Overfishing and habitat destruction have placed more than a third of all species at serious risk. Now, climate change introduces another challenge to sharks and rays.



A team of international researchers led by palaeobiologist Manuel A. Staggl from the University of Vienna sought to understand how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-constantly-reshuffling-earths-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">past climate fluctuations</a> affected the biodiversity of sharks and rays. 



They focused on the Jurassic (200-143 million years ago) and Cretaceous (143-66 million years ago) periods, a time when these species thrived in diverse environments. 



By analyzing fossilized teeth and comparing them to climate records, they identified key environmental factors that influenced shark populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-climate-change-shaped-shark-evolution">How climate change shaped shark evolution</h2>



The evolution of sharks and rays has always been closely linked to environmental conditions. During the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, the oceans underwent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-accelerating-beyond-control-as-co2-levels-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">significant changes</a>. 



The expansion of shallow coastal waters created new habitats, while rising global temperatures affected marine ecosystems. These periods saw an explosion in shark and ray diversity, demonstrating their ability to adapt to shifting conditions.



Fossil evidence suggests that the diversity of these species fluctuated with environmental changes. The researchers found that three main factors influenced their survival.



Higher global temperatures and an increase in shallow water areas had a positive effect, allowing sharks and rays to expand into new regions. 



However, a third factor - rising carbon dioxide (CO2) levels - had a clearly negative impact. This discovery sheds new light on how future climate change might affect these species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rising-co2-and-shark-diversity">Rising CO2 and shark diversity </h2>



One of the most significant findings of the study was the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-people-fear-climate-change-will-end-the-world-during-their-lifetime/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">negative effect of CO2 concentrations</a> on shark and ray biodiversity. Higher CO2 levels in the ocean have long been suspected to harm marine life, but this study provides clear evidence of its impact.



This is the first time that the negative impact of CO2 in the ocean has been so clearly described. While the exact mechanisms remain unclear, laboratory studies on modern sharks and rays suggest direct physiological consequences.



Increased CO2 can alter their sensory abilities, affecting their ability to navigate and hunt. It can also influence skeletal development during embryonic stages, potentially leading to deformities.



The fossil record confirms that past increases in CO2 levels contributed to the extinction of certain shark and ray species. This suggests that current climate change, driven by human activity, could have similar long-term consequences. If CO2 levels continue to rise, the survival of many species may be at risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-opportunities-for-sharks">Climate opportunities for sharks</h2>



Despite the dangers, climate change may not be entirely detrimental to sharks and rays. In previous geological periods, rising sea levels and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cities-are-largely-unprepared-for-the-effects-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">increasing temperatures</a> actually benefited their populations. 



Expanding warm-water regions and the creation of new shallow coastal environments provided ideal conditions for these predators.



"The resulting habitats in shallow seas that cover large continental areas are real biodiversity hotspots; sharks and rays were able to colonize them very quickly and efficiently thanks to their adaptability," explained Staggl.



During the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, temperatures were significantly higher than today, leading to the expansion of the tropics and subtropics. With fewer seasonal changes, marine ecosystems became more stable, supporting a wider range of species.



If similar conditions emerge in the future, some sharks and rays might find new habitats to thrive in. However, the speed of modern climate change presents a unique challenge. 



Unlike past warming events that occurred over millions of years, today’s changes are happening in just decades. This rapid shift could make adaptation difficult, even for a group of species that has survived multiple extinctions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-rapidly-changing-world">A rapidly changing world</h2>



Assuming that sharks and rays will simply adapt to climate change would be overly optimistic. 



"The environment is currently changing particularly quickly - unfortunately probably too quickly for the animals and their ecosystems," said Staggl. 



The current rate of warming and ocean acidification may surpass their ability to adjust. Overfishing and habitat destruction further <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-the-world-is-on-track-for-a-catastrophic-level-of-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complicate the situation</a>. 



Many shark species are already struggling due to declining populations, and climate change may add additional stress. Warmer oceans can disrupt food chains, forcing sharks to migrate in search of prey.



Changes in ocean currents and rising acidity levels may also alter their breeding patterns. If these species cannot adapt quickly enough, many could face extinction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-sharks-from-climate-change">Protecting sharks from climate change</h2>



Urgent action is needed to protect sharks and rays from multiple environmental threats. Conservation efforts must address overfishing, habitat loss, and the growing effects of climate change. 



These predators play a crucial role in maintaining marine ecosystems, and their decline could have widespread consequences.



"Because without the top predators, the ecosystems would collapse," warned Jürgen Kriwet, professor of palaeobiology at the <a href="https://www.univie.ac.at/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vienna</a>.



Sharks and rays regulate the balance of ocean life, keeping populations of other marine species in check. Without them, ecosystems could become unstable, affecting biodiversity and fisheries that millions of people depend on.



"By protecting sharks and rays, we are investing directly in the health of our oceans and therefore also in the people and industries that benefit from these ecosystems," said Kriwet.



Preserving these species is not just about maintaining biodiversity - it is about ensuring the stability of marine environments. 



The future of sharks and rays depends on immediate and sustained conservation efforts. Their survival will determine the health of the oceans for generations to come.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2079-7737/14/2/142" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology</a>.



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Sharks may benefit from rising temperatures - but not from rising CO2

Sharks and rays have inhabited Earth’s oceans for about 450...

Blue whales, the largest creatures on Earth, have long captivated scientists and the public alike. Reaching lengths of up to 100 feet (30 meters), these immense mammals depend on huge quantities of krill - tiny, shrimp-like crustaceans - to sustain their colossal bodies.&nbsp;



Historically, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blue-whales-continue-their-battle-for-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">blue whales</a>, along with other baleen whales, roamed the oceans in great numbers, filtering seawater for small marine life. However, the past century brought intensive commercial whaling that nearly eradicated them.&nbsp;



Intriguingly, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-krill-are-natures-unexpected-carbon-warriors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">krill</a> populations also plummeted instead of thriving in predator-free waters, and neither species has fully rebounded. This paradox has prompted scientists to investigate whales’ larger role in marine ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whales-as-nutrient-recyclers-nbsp">Whales as nutrient recyclers&nbsp;</h2>



A new study from <a href="https://www.washington.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a> (UW) oceanographers offers insight into this mystery. The research suggests that whales may act not just as top predators but also as crucial nutrient recyclers, fertilizing the open ocean through their excrement.&nbsp;



By providing essential trace metals like iron and non-toxic forms of copper, whales may bolster phytoplankton productivity, thereby sustaining the food web from the bottom up.



“We made novel measurements of whale feces to assess how important whales are to recycling important nutrients for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dust-from-africa-sparked-a-massive-phytoplankton-bloom/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phytoplankton</a>,” said first author Patrick Monreal, a UW doctoral student in oceanography.&nbsp;



“Our analysis suggests that the decimation of baleen whale populations from historical whaling could have had larger biogeochemical implications for the Southern Ocean, an area crucially important to global carbon cycling.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whale-poop-and-a-nutrient-puzzle-nbsp">Whale poop and a nutrient puzzle&nbsp;</h2>



For decades, scientists assumed that if whale numbers fell, then their primary prey - krill - would flourish in predator-free waters. Instead, krill populations declined as well. This conundrum spurred the idea that whales might be more than mere consumers, potentially playing a vital role in fertilizing the waters they inhabit.&nbsp;



In particular, the Southern Ocean surrounding Antarctica, with its strong currents and nutrient-rich upwelling, is recognized as a key player in climate regulation.&nbsp;



Despite the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-draining-nutrients-from-the-oceans-surface/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nutrient</a> content in deep water, essential elements such as iron can be in short supply at the surface, limiting phytoplankton growth. Without abundant phytoplankton, krill lack the food needed to sustain their populations.



Understanding this dynamic is crucial because phytoplankton, akin to terrestrial plants, form the foundation of marine food webs. They convert sunlight and carbon dioxide into organic matter, sequestering carbon and fueling the entire oceanic community.&nbsp;



If whale waste - rich in iron and other trace metals - once stimulated massive phytoplankton blooms, the decimation of whales could have curtailed this nutrient supply. This may have contributed to declines in krill and reshaped oceanic ecosystems in ways still felt today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gathering-and-analyzing-whale-waste">Gathering and analyzing whale waste</h2>



To investigate whales’ nutrient contribution, researchers collected five fecal samples: two from humpback whales in the Southern Ocean and three from blue whales off central California.&nbsp;



Although securing such samples might sound challenging, opportunistic collection is possible when whales defecate at the surface - whale excrement floats, forming a distinctive cloud that can be scooped up with a small net.



“The nice thing, I guess, is that whale excrement floats,” said senior author Randie Bundy, an assistant professor of oceanography at UW.



Previously, scientists had documented high levels of nitrogen and carbon in whale poop, but the new study focused on trace metals, substances often lacking far from land but essential for phytoplankton growth.&nbsp;



The team analyzed the whale feces for iron, known to be especially limited in the Southern Ocean, as well as copper.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-iron-copper-and-the-microbial-connection">Iron, copper, and the microbial connection</h2>



All five samples showed substantial iron content, reinforcing the hypothesis that whale waste functions as a fertilizer in nutrient-poor waters. The presence of copper astonished the researchers.



“We were really shocked by how much copper was in the whale poop. We initially thought, ‘Oh, no, is the whale poop actually toxic?’” Bundy said.



A deeper analysis indicated that the copper atoms were bound to organic ligands, molecules that render copper safe and bioavailable for marine life. These ligands also appear to help phytoplankton access iron more effectively.&nbsp;



The scientists suspect that gut microbes living within the whales may generate these ligands, acting as microscopic chemists that transform the animals’ feces into a highly beneficial nutrient source.



“I think animals play a larger role in chemical cycles than many experts give them credit for, especially when thinking at the ecosystem scale,” Monreal said. “When I say animals, I really mean their gut microbiome. Based on what we see, it seems like bacteria in the whales’ guts could be important.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation-and-climate">Implications for conservation and climate</h2>



The Southern Ocean is a critical zone for global carbon cycling, making these findings especially significant. If whales once substantially fertilized these waters, their near-eradication may have altered entire food chains.&nbsp;



As whale populations slowly recover, it’s possible their nutrient recycling activity - sometimes termed the “whale pump” - could also rebound, bolstering phytoplankton and helping reestablish robust marine communities.



Moreover, given that phytoplankton sequester carbon dioxide, a fuller understanding of whales’ role in promoting these blooms may inform climate mitigation efforts.&nbsp;



By illuminating the profound but underappreciated role of whale poop, this study underscores how preserving and restoring whale populations could ripple through oceanic ecosystems, affecting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-ocean-day-a-unified-approach-to-protect-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>, fisheries, and even carbon storage.



Ultimately, the research illustrates that whales, far from being mere consumers, actively shape their habitats. Their excrement stands as a striking example of how interconnected life in the ocean truly is - a reminder that conserving key species often helps uphold the entire, intricately balanced system beneath the waves.



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Whale poop is a natural fertilizer that keeps the ocean alive

Blue whales, the largest creatures on Earth, have long captivated...

Fungi are often overlooked in the grand tapestry of life, yet they play an essential role in ecosystems around the world. From decomposing organic matter to forming symbiotic relationships with plants and animals, fungi are nature’s silent architects. 



Recently, a discovery involving a fungus growing on a spider has added a new layer of understanding to the story of these remarkable organisms.



During this research, scientists identified a previously unknown <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungi-can-think-and-make-smart-decisions-without-a-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species of fungus</a> that has been named in honor of a legendary figure in natural history. 



This discovery adds to our knowledge of fungal diversity and is a reminder of how much there is still to learn about the intricate connections between fungi and their hosts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-species-gibellula-attenboroughii">New species Gibellula attenboroughii</h2>



Dr. Harry Evans, an Emeritus Fellow at CAB International, led a team of researchers from institutions such as the <a href="https://snm.dk/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural History Museum of Denmark</a> and the <a href="https://www.kew.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Botanical Gardens Kew</a>. 



The investigation began during the filming of the <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p012msk2/episodes/guide" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BBC Winterwatch series</a> in Northern Ireland, where a peculiar fungus was found growing on a spider.



Using both morphological and molecular evidence, the scientists confirmed that this fungus represented a novel species. 



In recognition of his profound impact on natural history programming, the team decided to name it after Sir David Attenborough.



"[The species is] named after the broadcaster and natural historian Sir David Attenborough, a pioneer of BBC natural history programs, who - in his role as controller of BBC 2 - helped to develop the Natural History Unit," noted Dr. Evans.



This led, indirectly, to the filming of the present nature series, during which the new species was first discovered.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gibellula-attenboroughii-and-spiders">Gibellula attenboroughii and spiders</h2>



The spider that hosted the fungus was later identified as Metellina merianae, an orb-weaving cave spider belonging to the family Tetragnathidae.



With the help of a local speleologist, the researchers extended their search and discovered more specimens of the newly named species, Gibellula attenboroughii, in cave systems across Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. 



Interestingly, the fungus was also found to infect another spider species, Meta menardi, which occupies different ecological niches within the caves. 



Like the original specimen, which was located on the ceiling of a gunpowder store, all of the infected spiders were found on the roof or walls of the caves.



These typically reclusive creatures had abandoned their usual hiding spots or webs, and migrated to exposed areas before dying.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connection-to-zombie-ant-fungi">Connection to zombie-ant fungi</h2>



This behavior mirrors what has been observed in ants that are similarly infected by fungi of the genus Ophiocordyceps in Brazil's Atlantic rainforest. 



In those cases, the fungi manipulated their ant hosts to position themselves in locations ideal for spore dispersal, which led to the use of the term "zombie-ant fungi."



This phenomenon has captured the public's imagination, inspiring books, video games, and even the popular television series The Last of Us. 



Scientists have since identified behavioral-changing metabolites, such as dopamine, in cultures of zombie-ant fungi.



The discovery of similar behaviors in spiders infected by Gibellula attenboroughii suggests that these fungi may employ comparable mechanisms to control their hosts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungus-and-spiders-in-the-british-isles">Fungus and spiders in the British Isles</h2>



Published in the journal Fungal Systematics and Evolution, the study went beyond identifying the new species. 



The researchers conducted extensive historical herbarium records and literature searches, and revealed a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-fungi-diversity-can-be-pulled-out-of-thin-air/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hidden diversity</a> within the genus Gibellula in the British Isles.



The experts also uncovered evidence of widespread disease epidemics among spiders in Norfolk and Wales. 



The findings suggest that fungi like Gibellula attenboroughii may play a significant role in regulating spider populations.



"Their role in spider-population dynamics warrants further study, as do the metabolites they produce which enable them to exploit such a highly specific ecological niche," noted the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-zombie-fungus-controls-spiders">How zombie fungus controls spiders</h2>



The discovery of Gibellula attenboroughii highlights the importance of studying fungi not only for their ecological roles but also for their potential applications. 



Understanding how these fungi influence spiders could provide insights into broader <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tipping-point-discovered-in-fungi-evolution-that-impacts-their-shape-and-growth-rate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecological dynamics</a>.



For instance, if certain fungi regulate spider numbers, they might indirectly affect other species within the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-frost-beard-ice-formation-exidiopsis-effusa-fungi-discovered-by-hiker/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystem</a>. 



Additionally, investigating the metabolites produced by these fungi could lead to discoveries with implications beyond ecology. 



Such compounds might have pharmaceutical or industrial uses, which makes this area of research particularly promising.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tribute-to-sir-david-attenborough">Tribute to Sir David Attenborough</h2>



Naming the fungus after <a href="https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0041003/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sir David Attenborough</a> serves as a fitting tribute to his lifelong dedication to exploring and sharing the wonders of the natural world. 



His work has inspired countless individuals, including the scientists involved in this study, to examine the mysteries of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deadly-fungus-found-in-garden-soils-across-america/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nature</a>. 



By honoring Sir Attenborough in this way, the researchers not only celebrate his contributions but also emphasize the interconnectedness of scientific discovery and public engagement. It is a reminder that science thrives when curiosity is shared and nurtured.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-is-gibellula-attenboroughii-important">Why is Gibellula attenboroughii important?</h2>



The identification of Gibellula attenboroughii opens up numerous avenues for future research. Scientists are eager to explore how these fungi manipulate their hosts and what chemical compounds they produce to achieve such precise control. 



Furthermore, understanding the role of fungi in regulating spider populations could provide valuable insights into ecosystem stability.



In a time when biodiversity is under threat, studies like this remind us of the importance of preserving ecosystems and the species within them. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/wfbi/fuse/pre-prints/content-f1_fuse_vol15_art7;jsessionid=dd632sclfekn9.x-ic-live-03" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fungal Systematics and Evolution</a>.



Image Credit: CABI



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Fungus infects and controls spiders, turning them into 'zombies'

Fungi are often overlooked in the grand tapestry of life,...

Remarkable social behaviors have been discovered in Kinda baboons (Papio kindae) that set them apart from other baboon species.&nbsp;



The research, led by <a href="https://www.umass.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Massachusetts Amherst</a> anthropologist Anna Weyher, was conducted over nine years in Zambia’s Kasanka National Park.



The study reveals that male Kinda baboons form strong, long-term social bonds with females, a behavior uncommon in most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baboons-fail-to-recognize-themselves-in-mirrors-unlike-some-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">baboon species</a>.



Unlike their more aggressive and competitive relatives, Kinda males initiate and maintain affiliative relationships with multiple females, forming lasting friendships that persist beyond mating periods.&nbsp;



These findings suggest that the social structures of Kinda baboons challenge traditional classifications of baboon behavior and could provide valuable insights into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primate-evolution-completing-the-timetree-of-life-for-all-of-our-closest-relatives/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primate evolution</a>, including early human social dynamics.



“In some ways, it’s not surprising that, behaviorally, Kindas are so different because, anatomically, they look a lot different than other baboons,” said Jason Kamilar, professor of anthropology at UMass Amherst and co-author of the study.&nbsp;



“Kindas are the smallest baboons and they’re also the least sexually dimorphic, so the difference in body size between males and females is the smallest - making them the best baboon species [for us] to understand humans.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unusual-male-female-social-bonds">Unusual male-female social bonds</h2>



In most baboon species, female social bonds dominate, and male-female relationships are typically short-lived, forming primarily around mating opportunities. However, Kinda baboon males take a different approach, prioritizing affiliative relationships with females.



Researchers found that male Kindas were the primary initiators of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-early-primates-lived-in-pairs-and-were-not-solitary-creatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social interactions</a>. They frequently engaged in proximity maintenance (staying close to specific females for extended periods), grooming (a key social behavior in primates that promotes trust and reduces stress), and long-term friendships lasting years, rather than being tied solely to reproduction.



These findings suggest that male-female bonds serve a broader social function beyond mating. The benefits for males could include increased reproductive opportunities, while females may gain social stability, reduced harassment, and greater protection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-baboons-and-cooperative-social-dynamics">Baboons and cooperative social dynamics</h2>



Another striking discovery was the notably low level of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/do-animals-have-mirror-neurons-that-spark-aggression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aggression</a> among Kinda males. In most baboon species, males compete aggressively for dominance, engaging in frequent battles over access to mates. 



However, the study found that Kinda baboons display minimal aggression toward each other and toward females.



“What we’ll typically see is that a male from outside the group will enter the study group, but they do so without much fanfare,” Kamilar explained.&nbsp;



“The new male will have to slowly move his way up the social hierarchy. That’s very different from yellow baboons, for instance, where you’ll have an individual male come in as an alpha and basically take over the group.”



Instead of forcefully challenging dominant males, new male Kinda baboons integrate gradually, forming relationships with group members rather than disrupting existing social structures.



This “long-game” strategy contrasts sharply with other baboon species, where males frequently battle for alpha status. The researchers believe this unique approach could provide evolutionary advantages, promoting cooperative relationships rather than dominance-based competition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-baboon-social-structures">Rethinking baboon social structures</h2>



The study’s findings challenge the traditional classification of baboon social models. Historically, baboons have been grouped into two primary social structures.&nbsp;



The “savannah” model is characterized by strong female bonds, with males competing aggressively for mates, as seen in species like yellow and olive baboons.&nbsp;



In contrast, the “hamadryas” model features rigid, male-dominated groups where males exert strong control over female movements, a structure typical of hamadryas baboons.



However, Kinda baboons don’t fit neatly into either category. Instead, they exhibit a blend of social behaviors, where males form lasting social ties with females without controlling them.



According to the experts, Kinda baboons exhibit a variety of behaviors, with male-driven social investment similar to that of hamadryas baboons, but within a more fluid and egalitarian group structure.



This raises intriguing questions about the evolution of social behavior in primates, suggesting that Kinda baboons might represent an ancestral social system - one that predates the more hierarchical structures seen in other baboon species today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-window-into-early-human-evolution">A window into early human evolution?</h2>



Because Kinda baboons are the least sexually dimorphic of all baboon species, meaning males and females are closer in size than in other baboon species, researchers believe they offer insights into early human social evolution.



“Understanding how different primate species interact socially gives us clues about the evolutionary pressures that shaped human behavior,” Kamilar said.



The findings suggest that early primates - potentially including human ancestors - may have exhibited similar cooperative, male-female social bonds rather than strict dominance-based hierarchies. This could provide a model for understanding how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-had-surprising-diets-3-5-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early humans</a> balanced competition and cooperation in their social groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-research-is-needed">Further research is needed</h2>



The Kasanka Baboon Project, founded by lead researcher Anna Weyher, continues to study Kinda baboons to further investigate their unique social structures.&nbsp;



The team hopes to answer additional questions, such as: Do male-female friendships affect offspring survival rates? How do Kindas resolve conflicts without aggressive dominance struggles? Could this social model be more widespread among other primate species?



“Kinda baboons challenge many of our assumptions about primate behavior,” Weyher said. “By studying them, we’re not just learning about baboons - we’re uncovering new perspectives on how complex social behaviors evolve.”



By shedding light on the cooperative social strategies of Kinda baboons, this study not only deepens our understanding of primate behavior but also offers a fascinating glimpse into the social lives of our early ancestors.



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Baboons may offer clues to early human social evolution

Remarkable social behaviors have been discovered in Kinda baboons (Papio...

Mantis shrimp are among the ocean’s most formidable predators, delivering one of the most powerful and fastest punches in the animal kingdom.&nbsp;



With their specialized dactyl clubs, these shrimp can strike with the force of a .22 caliber bullet, shattering mollusk shells and even cracking aquarium glass. But while their blows are lethal to prey, an even greater mystery is how they themselves remain unharmed.



A new study from <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northwestern University</a>, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.adq7100" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>, has revealed the secret behind the mantis shrimp’s resilience. Researchers found that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrimp-crisis-alarming-virus-threatens-global-seafood-supplies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shrimp</a>’s club structure selectively filters out harmful shockwaves, protecting its delicate tissues from the immense forces it generates.&nbsp;



This discovery could inspire advanced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-helmeted-hornbill-can-withstand-high-impact-collisions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">impact-resistant materials</a>ù for applications in protective gear, military armor, and industrial equipment.



“The mantis shrimp is known for its incredibly powerful strike, which can break mollusk shells and even crack aquarium glass,” said Horacio D. Espinosa, the study’s co-corresponding author. “However, to repeatedly execute these high-impact strikes, the mantis shrimp’s dactyl club must have a robust protection mechanism to prevent self-damage.”&nbsp;



“Most prior work has focused on the club’s toughness and crack resistance, treating the structure as a toughened impact shield.”



“We found it uses phononic mechanisms - structures that selectively filter stress waves. This enables the shrimp to preserve its striking ability over multiple impacts and prevent soft tissue damage.”



Espinosa, a professor of mechanical engineering at Northwestern’s McCormick School of Engineering, collaborated with M. Abi Ghanem from the <a href="https://ilm.univ-lyon1.fr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute of Light and Matter</a> in France to lead this groundbreaking research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-mantis-shrimp-s-deadly-strike">The mantis shrimp’s deadly strike</h2>



Mantis shrimp, which inhabit shallow tropical waters, rely on an internal spring-loaded system to deliver their extraordinary punch. Their dactyl clubs store large amounts of energy in elastic structures, held in place by latch-like tendons.&nbsp;



When the latch is released, the club accelerates faster than a bullet, unleashing a strike that pulverizes shells and deters predators.



This powerful impact has an additional effect: as the club moves through water, it creates a low-pressure zone behind it, forming a small cavitation bubble. When this bubble collapses, it generates a secondary shockwave, adding to the destructive force of the initial strike.



“When the mantis shrimp strikes, the impact generates pressure waves onto its target. It also creates bubbles, which rapidly collapse to produce shockwaves in the megahertz range,” explained Espinosa.



“The collapse of these bubbles releases intense bursts of energy, which travel through the shrimp’s club. This secondary shockwave effect, along with the initial impact force, makes the mantis shrimp’s strike even more devastating.”



Yet despite these immense forces, the mantis shrimp’s own nerves and tissues remain unscathed - a phenomenon that led researchers to investigate the shrimp’s unique biological armor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-natural-shockwave-filter">A natural shockwave filter</h2>



To uncover how mantis shrimp survive their own punches, the researchers examined the microstructure of the dactyl club using two advanced techniques.



The team used transient grating spectroscopy, which tracks how stress waves move through materials, and picosecond laser ultrasonics, which provides high-resolution imaging of structural details.



The analysis revealed that the club consists of two distinct regions, each serving a specialized protective function. The outer impact layer is made of mineralized fibers arranged in a herringbone pattern, reinforcing the club against fractures and absorbing direct impact forces.&nbsp;



Beneath this layer, a deeper periodic region contains twisted, corkscrew-like fiber bundles arranged in a Bouligand structure, where each layer is slightly rotated relative to the one above it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-remarkable-mantis-shrimp-armor">Remarkable mantis shrimp armor</h2>



The researchers found that this inner periodic region selectively filters out high-frequency shockwaves, preventing harmful vibrations from propagating back into the shrimp’s body.&nbsp;



This structure, acting as a phononic shield, ensures that only safe, low-energy waves pass through, shielding the shrimp’s delicate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crocodile-scales-are-shaped-by-tissue-growth-not-genetics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tissues</a> from damage.



“The periodic region plays a crucial role in selectively filtering out high-frequency shear waves, which are particularly damaging to biological tissues,” noted Espinosa. “This effectively shields the shrimp from damaging stress waves caused by the direct impact and bubble collapse.”



This discovery provides a new way of thinking about biological impact resistance, suggesting that mantis shrimp armor isn’t just tough - it actively manages and disperses shockwaves to protect the animal from self-inflicted damage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-materials-that-mimic-the-mantis-shrimp-nbsp">Materials that mimic the mantis shrimp&nbsp;</h2>



The mantis shrimp’s ability to absorb and filter shockwaves could inspire new synthetic materials with similar properties.&nbsp;



Protective gear, including helmets, body armor, and industrial shields, could be designed to redirect or absorb impact forces, reducing injuries in fields ranging from sports and military defense to hazardous industrial work.



Beyond impact-resistant materials, this research also has implications for reducing blast-related injuries in military and high-impact environments.&nbsp;



By developing materials that mimic the shrimp’s phononic properties, researchers could design lightweight protective systems capable of selectively filtering out harmful shockwaves, while allowing less damaging forces to pass through.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-research-is-needed">Further research is needed</h2>



Although this study provides groundbreaking insights into how the mantis shrimp’s club mitigates shockwaves, further research is needed to fully understand the complexities of its design.&nbsp;



Espinosa and his colleagues plan to conduct 3D simulations to model how the club’s layered structure disperses energy in real-world conditions.&nbsp;



Additionally, they hope to develop aquatic experiments using state-of-the-art instrumentation to observe how these phononic properties function in submerged environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-powerful-biological-weapons-nbsp">Powerful biological weapons&nbsp;</h2>



Mantis shrimp have evolved one of the most powerful biological weapons in nature, yet they remain unscathed by their own force.&nbsp;



Their layered dactyl club structure, with its ability to filter and absorb shockwaves, provides a natural model for engineering materials that can withstand repeated high-impact blows.



As scientists continue to explore nature’s designs for solving engineering challenges, the mantis shrimp’s unique armor may hold the key to the next generation of protective technology - one that not only resists impact but manages vibrations in ways that could revolutionize human safety and material science.



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How mantis shrimp survive their own lethal punches

Mantis shrimp are among the ocean’s most formidable predators, delivering...

Whales have fascinated people for centuries. Now, scientists have discovered that humpback whales produce songs with some structure that looks a lot like how humans organize language.



These findings draw on methods used to see how babies detect words in speech. The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adq7055" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a> was led by <a href="https://www.arnonlanguagelab.com/inbal-arnon-phd" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Inbal Arnon</a> from the Hebrew University, along with colleagues at multiple universities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whale-songs-and-human-speech">Whale songs and human speech</h2>



For years, experts questioned whether <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-helps-humans-have-20-minute-conversation-with-humpback-whale-named-twain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales</a> used anything resembling human language. That has changed, with this <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adq7055" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> reporting that whale songs contain recurring elements similar to those in spoken words.&nbsp;



The team compared patterns in whale recordings to patterns in human language. They found that certain repeated sounds appeared in a skewed distribution, which also shows up in language.



They arrived at these conclusions using eight years of recordings gathered near New Caledonia. The analysis suggests that whales may create phrases with distinct internal boundaries that appear repeatedly.



<a href="https://media.ed.ac.uk/media/1_x47e22m8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">*** Click here to listen to the whale songs ***</a>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-baby-language-research-helps">How baby language research helps</h2>



Researchers turned to methods originally used by baby-language experts. In a classic 1996 <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.274.5294.1926" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a>, scientists showed that eight-month-old infants track probabilities between syllables to spot word boundaries.



Applying these same ideas to whale song helped the team identify distinct structural units. They suspect whales might piece together these sound units through a similar statistical process.



The question is whether whales detect transitions between sound elements as cues. That possibility opens new doors for understanding how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-20-minute-conversation-with-a-humpback-whale-named-twain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> learn complex calls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-chain-across-the-ocean">Cultural chain across the ocean</h2>



Humpback whales learn their songs from each other, passing new phrases through communities. This type of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0065345408603770?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cultural transmission</a> can shape communication in ways that mirror human language.



Experts believe these communal practices may help songs change over time. As new whales adapt tunes, they add fresh twists to a shared repertoire.



Such changes might explain why certain phrases dominate a region, while others fade away. That dynamic process could be central to how these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-whales-use-songs-to-hide-from-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> maintain a musical tradition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-debating-what-whale-songs-mean">Debating what whale songs mean</h2>



This work extends beyond simple comparisons. “Whale song is not a language; it lacks semantic meaning,” said <a href="https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/biology/people/ecg5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Ellen Garland</a> from the <a href="https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of St Andrews</a>.



“Using insights and methods from how babies learn language allowed us to discover previously undetected structure in whale song.” said Professor Inbal Arnon from the Hebrew University.



The team sees a bigger question about whether these patterns matter to the whales themselves. It's unclear if they perceive these divisions the same way we do.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-communication-in-whales-and-humans">Communication in whales and humans</h2>



“It suggests that our understanding of the evolution of language can benefit not only from looking at our closest primate relatives, but also at cases of convergent evolution elsewhere in nature,” remarked Professor Simon Kirby from the <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Edinburgh</a>.



Language evolution research has often focused on apes or other primates.&nbsp;



Looking at whales may highlight the role of cultural factors in shaping communication. The study's authors see parallels that challenge old ideas about human uniqueness.



Other scientists note that humpback songs may also resemble music more than language. Some traits might bridge both domains, hinting at shared pathways in how complex signals emerge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



The study authors plan to explore whether <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whale-travels-farther-than-any-mammal-ever-recorded/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whale</a> songs contain segments that have special significance. They want to know if whales respond differently when certain phrases are rearranged.



Dr. Garland mentioned that these new perspectives raise many open questions about cognition and communication. She adds that more data will help confirm if whales use these breaks in real interaction.



Some observers hope these results will guide better conservation strategies. If we grasp how whales craft their songs, we might better protect their communication hotspots.



Some researchers see parallels between whale melodies and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-causes-similar-emotional-experiences-and-sensations-in-all-cultures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human music</a>. Yet the authors emphasize that whale songs do not carry the expressive content of a full language.



Scientists might compare humpback song shifts across different regions. That approach could reveal how social learning shapes each population's signature sounds.



Others are keen to track how quickly whales adopt new phrases from traveling groups. Rapid changes might hint at a flexible system that's primed for adaptation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whales-and-humans-share-cultural-learning">Whales and humans share cultural learning</h2>



Whales and humans seem incredibly different. Yet both rely on cultural learning to pass key behaviors across generations.



These findings highlight a surprising link between human speech and whale song. Researchers believe this shared trait might spark new ideas about how communication evolves.



They see whales as a window into broader questions about how complex signals arise through cultural means. Tracking those signals could lead to fresh insights about creativity in nature.



Many experts now wonder if whale songs might reshape our definitions of language-like behavior. More studies are needed to see if these patterns hold across different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conversation-with-humpback-whale-gives-seti-team-ideas-on-how-to-talk-to-aliens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whale species</a>.



These results might broaden how we see animal communication in the future.



The study is published in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adq7055" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Whale songs share very similar patterns with human language

Whales have fascinated people for centuries. Now, scientists have discovered...

They start their journey on sandy shores, scuttling toward the waves at barely a few inches long. Some people assume these little sea turtles vanish after that, drifting in the open water for years without actively swimming or controlling where they go.



In a recent <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2013.3039" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> led by Kate Mansfield from the University of Central Florida, researchers have pieced together what happens during the early, lesser-known part of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-turtles-show-signs-of-recovery-but-conservation-issues-remain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">turtles’ lives</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-baby-turtles-is-difficult">Tracking baby turtles is difficult</h2>



Researchers recently uncovered the whereabouts of young sea turtles by using carefully designed satellite trackers. They found that tiny turtles show more control over their movement than once believed.



“We’ve had massive data gaps about the early baby to toddler life stages of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-sea-turtle-day-celebrating-100-million-years-of-majesty/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea</a> turtles,” said Mansfield. She explained that this phase was rarely observed in detail.



"Known as the sea turtle ‘lost years,' few data exist on the in-water behavior of young, oceanic-stage sea turtles," wrote the researchers.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rainfall-impacts-the-size-of-sea-turtle-hatchlings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Young</a> turtles shed their outer shell layers quickly. This makes it tough to secure tracking devices long enough to gather good data.



Engineers refined lightweight solar-powered tags for weeks or months of location data without hindering the turtles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-young-sea-turtles-don-t-just-drift">Young sea turtles don’t just drift</h2>



Scientists once believed baby turtles went with the flow of ocean currents. Field data are now challenging that long-standing notion.



“What we’ve uncovered is that the turtles are actually swimming,” said Nathan Putman, an ecologist at LGL Ecological Research Associates in Texas.



The analysis compared drifting buoys with small turtles and showed that many turtles moved on their own instead of washing ashore.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-baby-turtles-choose-where-to-swim">Baby turtles choose where to swim</h2>



The difference between turtles and free-floating buoys grew clearer over the course of each tracking period. Drifting objects often ended up stuck on beaches, yet many turtles did not.



“This tiny little hatchling is actually making its own decisions about where it wants to go in the ocean and what it wants to avoid,” said Bryan Wallace, a wildlife ecologist at <a href="https://ecolibriumsolar.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecolibrium in Colorado</a>.



The new findings suggest that turtles choose routes that match their needs for food and safe temperatures.



"The paths of our tracked neonate loggerheads were environmentally constrained. No turtles moved into lethally cold waters," noted the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-habitats-of-sea-turtles-revealed">Hidden habitats of sea turtles revealed</h2>



Tag data also showed young sea turtles in areas once assumed too close to shore for this stage. Though many do wander across open waters, some appear comfortable dipping into shallower spots.



The researchers noted that such varied paths challenge the old definition of an exclusively oceanic childhood. This highlights the importance of regions near the continental shelf for four types of endangered sea <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/leatherback-sea-turtles-where-the-worlds-largest-turtles-go-to-eat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">turtles</a>.



It took years to refine solar-powered tags that could function on small, rapidly growing shells. Early versions fell off too fast or failed to recharge in ocean conditions.



“For years, the technology couldn’t match the dream,” said Jeffrey Seminoff, a marine biologist at NOAA who was not involved in the study. 



Continued collaboration between ecologists and engineers is bringing once-hidden animal behavior to light.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-efforts-for-sea-turtles">Conservation efforts for sea turtles </h2>



The findings spotlight part of a creature’s life that was overshadowed for decades by hatchling races to the sea and nesting adults on familiar beaches. 



Young turtles do more than just drift - they swim toward the open ocean, while others linger over the continental shelf.



“It’s not that the sea turtles were ever lost, but that we had lost track of them,” said Jeanette Wyneken at Florida Atlantic University. This deeper understanding may guide conservation efforts in areas where turtles feed or rest before reaching adulthood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-how-baby-turtles-swim">Rethinking how baby turtles swim</h2>



The research suggests that the early life stage of sea turtles is not just a dispersal period. The study captures the reality that little turtles roam widely and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-sea-turtle-day-a-tribute-to-resilience-and-conservation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adapt</a> their routes to changing conditions.



They might spot floating algae to seek shelter, or they might veer away from predator hotspots. Even in vast waters, these hatchlings can find ways to survive on their own terms.



The study is published in <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2013.3039" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.



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Where young sea turtles spend their early lives has always been a mystery - until now

They start their journey on sandy shores, scuttling toward the...

species in Lopadorrhynchidae