Every year, millions of birds migrate in search of warmer climates to escape the harsh winter. However, this seasonal journey does not necessarily help birds conserve energy as previously thought, according to a recent study from the <a href="https://www.ab.mpg.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior</a> (MPI-AB). 



By implanting miniaturized loggers into wild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-blackbirds-get-sick-it-takes-weeks-for-them-to-recover/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">blackbirds</a>, scientists were able to record detailed measurements of the birds' heart rates and body temperatures every 30 minutes, from fall until the following spring. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-no-overall-energy-advantage-nbsp">No overall energy advantage&nbsp;</h2>



The study offers an unprecedented look into the true energetic costs of both migrating and staying in place. The data also uncovered an unexpected energy-saving mechanism used by blackbirds before migration begins.



“We never expected to discover that birds gain no overall energy advantage by escaping cold winters,” said Nils Linek, a first author of the study and researcher at MPI-AB.&nbsp;



“It was a longstanding textbook assumption that animals spend less energy by migrating to warmer places, but our findings have shown that these savings don’t add up. Rather, the energetics of migration is far more complex and interesting than theory predicted.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-energy-expenditure-of-blackbirds-nbsp">Measuring energy expenditure of blackbirds&nbsp;</h2>



Migration is a spectacular example of how animals adapt to changing seasons, but the fundamental question of why animals migrate has long puzzled scientists.&nbsp;



Part of the challenge has been the difficulty of studying the physiology of free-living animals over extended periods.&nbsp;



In this study, researchers from MPI-AB and <a href="https://www.yale.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale University</a> made a significant breakthrough by using sensors that measured the energy expenditure of blackbirds over the course of a full year, including their migration. 



They then paired this physiological data with energy modeling to calculate the predicted energetic costs of regulating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/koalas-can-predict-hot-days-and-adjust-their-body-temperature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">body temperature</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blackbirds-save-up-energy-for-their-journey">Blackbirds save up energy for their journey</h2>



The data showed that migrating blackbirds conserved substantial amounts of energy in preparation for migration by lowering their metabolism three weeks before departing. This adjustment may offset the energy costs of the migratory flights.&nbsp;



“They are essentially turning down their internal thermostat, allowing them to save energy for the journey ahead,” explained Linek.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicted-energy-surplus-nbsp">Predicted energy surplus&nbsp;</h2>



Yet, once the birds reached their warmer wintering areas, they did not seem to reduce their overall daily energy expenditure as expected.



“This was not what we anticipated,” said co-first author Scott Yanco, a scientist at the Yale Center for Biodiversity and Global Change.&nbsp;



“The energy modeling we did in the study predicted that migration should definitely create an energy surplus because of the substantially reduced cost of keeping warm in milder climates.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-costs-in-overwintering-sites-nbsp">Hidden costs in overwintering sites&nbsp;</h2>



The mystery remains: where did this predicted energy surplus go? “We can only speculate at this point, but we suggest that there may be other physiological adaptations or hidden costs that migrant blackbirds face in their milder overwintering sites,” said Linek. 



“These might include factors such as the need to maintain vigilance in new environments, immune functions, or unknown stressors that offset the thermal advantage they should have experienced.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-partially-migratory-blackbirds">“Partially migratory” blackbirds</h2>



The researchers conducted their study in southern Germany, where blackbird populations are “partially migratory.” This means that while some blackbirds migrate south to regions like Spain and France, others remain in Germany throughout the year.&nbsp;



To track both migrant and resident birds, the researchers implanted heart rate and body temperature loggers into 120 wild blackbirds. These devices recorded data continuously from September until May.&nbsp;



Additionally, the team used radio transmitters to monitor the departure and return of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-migratory-birds-navigate-with-such-accuracy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migratory birds</a>. Over one million data points were analyzed to compare the physiological differences between the two groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-blackbirds-in-remarkable-detail-nbsp">Tracking blackbirds in remarkable detail&nbsp;</h2>



“Using physiological data, we were able to see in remarkable detail how birds undertake and experience migration,” said co-author Tamara Volkmer, a doctoral student at MPI-AB.&nbsp;



“We could observe everything from the migratory flight itself to how they recovered afterward and what they did over the winter. By recording long-term, detailed energy measurements, we could glimpse the hidden costs of their impressive round trip.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-drivers-of-migration-nbsp">Evolutionary drivers of migration&nbsp;</h2>



The findings suggest that migration, despite its risks and challenges, does not result in energy savings in warmer climates. This raises new questions about the evolutionary drivers of migration.&nbsp;



“This could have implications for our understanding of migration and its underlying mechanisms across different bird species,” Linek explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study-nbsp">Broader implications of the study&nbsp;</h2>



The study also has broader implications for predicting how species will respond to future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migratory-birds-are-struggling-to-adapt-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate changes</a>.



Study senior author Jesko Partecke is a group leader at MPI-AB who has been studying blackbird migration for two decades.



“Understanding the physiological underpinnings of migration means that we can better forecast which species may adapt, which may alter their migratory patterns, and which may face greater risks as the world continues to warm,” said Partecke.&nbsp;



As climate change progresses, this research could prove essential in understanding how migratory species will cope with shifting environmental conditions, potentially altering migration strategies or even leading to the disappearance of certain migratory behaviors.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-024-02545-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>, 



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Blackbirds reveal the true energy costs of migrating

Every year, millions of birds migrate in search of warmer climates to escape the harsh winter. However, this seasonal journey does not necessarily help birds conserve energy as previously thought, according to a recent study from the Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior (MPI-AB).  By implanting miniaturized loggers into wild blackbirds, scientists were able to record detailed measurements of the birds' heart rates and body temperatures every 30 minutes, from fall until the following spring.  No overall energy advantage&nbsp; The study offers an unprecedented look into the...

In an effort to eradicate the cow disease Mycoplasma bovis, New Zealand will cull more than 100,00 cows from its national herd. 

Farming is a major part of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-population-blue-whales-new-zealand/">New Zealand’s</a> economy and the country is the world’s largest exporter of dairy. According to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/may/28/new-zealand-cull-cow-mycoplasma-disease">The Guardian</a>, New Zealand produces three percent of all the world’s milk, the majority of which is sent to China. 

The decision to cull 126,000 cows from the national herd was not an easy one to make. After Mycoplasma bovis was first discovered in New Zealand last July, the government and dairy industry had to act. 

New Zealand Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-05-28/new-zealand-to-slaughter-thousands-of-cows-mycoplasma-bovis/9808532">spoke in a press release</a> about the difficulty farmers would face losing their herd and the costs of eradication, which she said could total over NZ$800 million dollars. 

But according to the Prime Minister, doing nothing would be far more costly. 

“Speaking with affected farmers in recent weeks it is obvious that this has taken a toll, but standing back and allowing the disease to spread would simply create more anxiety for all farmers.” Arden told The Guardian. 

The disease has been found on 38 farms in New Zealand so far, and it’s because of it’s relatively low numbers, affecting less than one percent of dairy farms, that eradication is highly possible according to <a href="https://www.dairynz.co.nz/animal/cow-health/mycoplasma-bovis/">DairyNZ</a> Chairman Jim van der Poel. 

“If we don’t take this one chance, the disease will spread and the risk of it eventually affecting many of our herds is high,” Poel wrote in a statement for DairyNZ. “Let’s take this window while we have it, as we will never have this opportunity again.” 

The problem with Mycoplasma bovis is that it’s difficult to detect and doesn't respond to antibiotics. The disease most typically causes mastitis, swollen joints, pneumonia and ear infections.

Although Mycoplasma bovis doesn’t affect humans, according to DairyNZ, the spread of the disease impacts animal well-being and productivity. 

<a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-05-28/new-zealand-to-kill-150-000-cows-to-end-bacterial-disease">Bloomberg</a> reported that officials expect to know by the end of the year whether or not the mission to eradicate Mycoplasma bovis is working. 

Arden herself said she empathizes with the farmers who will have to undergo having all their cows slaughtered, but the government and cattle industry are in agreement that the long-term consequences of letting the disease spread far outweighs any incurred losses with the eradication plan. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer

New Zealand to cull 126,000 cows to eradicate disease

In an effort to eradicate the cow disease Mycoplasma bovis,...

The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-bleaching-fish-diversity/">Great Barrier Reef</a> covers an area of 348,000 kilometers and contains the world’s largest collection of coral reefs. It is indeed a natural wonder of great significance, and its continued preservation and protection from degradation and bleaching is an important mission for many in the scientific community. 

It’s no secret that climate change, human activities, and ocean temperature variations have caused catastrophic bleaching events, which not only impacts the corals themselves but also the species that rely on corals to thrive. 

Now, a new landmark study of the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) has discovered that the reef may be more resilient to major sea level changes than previously realized. 

Researchers led by Jody Webster from the <a href="https://sydney.edu.au/">University of Sydney</a> reconstructed the evolution of the reef over the past 30,000 years using data collected from fossil reef cores at 16 different sites off the coast of Australia. 

The study, published in the journal Nature Geoscience, shows both glaciation and deglaciation events had a significant impact on the reef. 

All in all, the researchers found that the reef has suffered 5 death events driven by sea-level changes, and in response to these changes, the reef migrated across the ocean floor.

When sea levels dropped 30,000 years ago and again 22,000 years ago, the reef was exposed to air and went through two major death events. During this time, as sea levels dropped, the reef moved further seaward to avoid surface exposure. 

Two more death events occurred when sea levels rose after glacial melting and the reef subsequently moved inward towards to the shore. 

High increases in sediment were likely the biggest driver behind the reef’s deaths, and the fifth death event was linked to a massive sediment increase which reduced water quality, according to the study. 

The results point to a more hopeful outlook for the GBR in the face of global warming. However, the rapid increases in temperature and sea-level due to current changes in climate may be too much for the reef to properly adapt as it has before. 

“Our study shows the reef has been able to bounce back from past death events during the last glaciation and deglaciation,” said Webster. “However, we found it is also highly sensitive to increased sediment input, which is of concern given current land-use practices. I have grave concerns about the ability of the reef in its current form to survive the pace of change caused by the many current stresses and those projected into the near future.” 

--

By<a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com"> Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The Great Barrier Reef has undergone five different death events

The Great Barrier Reef covers an area of 348,000 kilometers...

These insects can survive being eaten by a bird. An investigation by researchers at <a href="http://www.kobe-u.ac.jp/en/index.html">Kobe University</a> has revealed that some insect eggs can still hatch after being swallowed by a bird. The eggs of stick insects, for example, are hard enough to pass through a bird without being digested. 

Because stick insects cannot travel very far on their own, being eaten by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-lead-flock-strongest-flyers/">birds</a> may actually facilitate the expansion of their habitats. 

In order for insects to use birds as a means of distributing their eggs over long distances, the eggs must be resilient enough to pass through the digestive tract unharmed. In addition, the offspring must be the type that can fend for themselves and the eggs must be viable without fertilization. Stick insects meet all of these requirements.

For the investigation, the researchers fed birds the eggs of three species of stick insects and found that up to 20 percent of the eggs were safely excreted. From one species, eggs retrieved from the bird's excrement successfully hatched and the insects survived. 

The stomachs of adult female stick insects are always filled with eggs, and this may be a way for them to expand their own distribution - considering that the stick insects are frequently eaten by birds.

Plants have developed strategies to distribute their seeds, and the most common is seed dispersal by animals. Some plants produce eye-catching fruit that will appeal to animals, who eat the fruits and excrete the seeds whole. 

Stick insects blend into their environments and do not actively seek the attention of predators, but their consumption by birds still assists in their distribution.

“Our next step is analyzing the genetic structure of stick insects,” said study lead author Professor Kenji Suetsugu. “Based on this we'd like to investigate whether similar genetic structure of stick insects can be found along birds' migration flight paths, and whether there are genetic similarities between stick insects and plants that rely on birds for seed distribution.” 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/19399170/">Ecology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

These insects can survive being eaten by a bird

These insects can survive being eaten by a bird. An...

Cognitive ethologist Marc Bekoff explores the many different ways that dogs communicate in his new book Canine Confidential: Why Dogs Do What They Do. According to Professor Bekoff, dogs are not only able to communicate basic emotions, but also experience emotions that require much more cognitive processing as well.

Mr. Bekoff explains that dogs have emotions just like people do, experiencing feelings such as love, anger, fear, grief, anxiety and joy. Dogs also produce more complex emotions such as shame, embarrassment, jealousy, guilt, resentment, pride, and empathy.

In addition, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-experience-complex-emotions/">dogs</a> can identify these feelings in humans, primarily by watching our body language and facial expressions. Dogs use their highly developed senses of smell, touch, and hearing to pick up on our various moods as well.

Brian Viner introduces Professor Bekoff’s new book in a piece written for the <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/home/index.html">Daily Mail</a>, “Does your dog feel guilty - or just embarrassed? Evolutionary professor delves into our pets' emotions with fascinating results.” In his essay, Viner shares a story about his daughter and her boyfriend Tom taking the family's golden retriever, Fergus, for a walk.

“When they came back, Fergus padded urgently into the kitchen to find my wife, Jane. He looked at her solemnly, nudged her with his wet nose, then turned tail and led her purposefully to the bottom of the stairs,” writes Viner.

“We don’t allow Fergus upstairs, but he stood there, gazing up and whimpering gently. Jane got the message and ran to find Eleanor, in her bedroom, distraught.”

“On the walk, Tom had abruptly ended the relationship. It was, effectively, Fergus who broke the news to Jane.”

Viner says that Professor Bekoff is providing new insight into this type of  intriguing behavior among dogs.

In his book, Professor Bekoff delves into why dogs sniff where other dogs have urinated. He explains that, from the scent, the dogs can decipher whether the dog had been young or old, male or female, and can even pick up on its sexual urges. Bekoff adds that dogs spend at least a third of the time they are being walked taking in various odors.

“You might compare it to texting,” writes Professor Bekoff. “Dogs are getting the previous messages left by others, and peeing is, perhaps, a way of replying. Forcing dogs to walk when they are ‘texting’ is like pulling a smartphone from a teenager’s hand.”

Dr. Stanley Coren is a professor of Psychology at the University of British Columbia. In an essay published in <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/us">Psychology Today</a>, he explains that advances in science have allowed us to understand that dogs have the same brain structures as humans that produce emotions.

“Dogs also have the same hormones and undergo the same chemical changes that humans do during emotional states,” writes Dr. Coren. 

“Dogs even have the hormone oxytocin, which, in humans, is involved with feeling love and affection for others. With the same neurology and chemistry that people have, it seems reasonable to suggest that dogs also have emotions that are similar to ours.”

Professor Bekoff suggests that learning more about the emotional lives of dogs can help us treat them better. In Psychology Today, he says: “We know a lot about human-dog relationships, but many people still don't use our knowledge to give dogs what they want and need.”

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dogs experience even the most complex emotions

Cognitive ethologist Marc Bekoff explores the many different ways that...

Few birds survived the asteroid impact that wiped out dinosaurs. A recent study has revealed that tree-dwelling birds were unable to survive the mass extinction event 65 million years ago that wiped out the dinosaurs. The experts found that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chicxulub-asteroid-strike-temperatures/">Chicxulub asteroid</a> strike destroyed forests worldwide, completely eliminating the natural habitats of tree-dwelling birds species.

Birds with stronger legs equipped to live on the ground, comparable to modern-day ostriches, were the only avian species to survive. When mature forests returned, which could have taken thousands of years, birds diversified back into the trees.

Study lead author Daniel Field is a vertebrate paleontologist at the <a href="http://www.bath.ac.uk/">University of Bath</a>. 

“We drew on a variety of approaches to stitch this story together,” said Field. “We concluded that the devastation of forests in the aftermath of the asteroid impact explains why tree-dwelling birds failed to survive across this extinction event.”

“The ancestors of modern tree-dwelling birds did not move into the trees until forests had recovered from the extinction-causing asteroid.”

The research team analyzed plant fossil records to establish that forests disappeared after the impact of the asteroid. Immediately after the asteroid collided with the Earth, the fossil record showed the charcoal remains of trees, and then, tons of spores from just two species of fern.

Study co-author Antoine Bercovici is a paleobotanist at the <a href="https://naturalhistory.si.edu/">Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History</a>.

“This fern spike represents evidence of ‘disaster flora,’ where pioneer species are rapidly recolonizing open ground, such as seen today when ferns recolonize lava flows in Hawaii or landslides after volcanic eruptions,” Bercovici told <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/">National Geographic</a>. 

The researchers also concluded that the common ancestor to all of today's birds lived on the ground. While there were many tree-dwelling dwelling bird species that lived alongside dinosaurs, they did not survive to have genetic ties to modern-day birds.

“Today, birds are the most diverse and globally widespread group of terrestrial vertebrate animals - there are nearly 11,000 living species,” said Dr. Fields

“Only a handful of ancestral bird lineages succeeded in surviving the K-Pg mass extinction event 66 million years ago, and all of today's amazing living bird diversity can be traced to these ancient survivors.”

The researchers will continue analyzing the fossil record to accurately establish when the Earth's forests recovered and to explore the diversification of birds that followed.

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Few birds survived the asteroid impact that wiped out dinosaurs

Few birds survived the asteroid impact that wiped out dinosaurs....

Experts at the <a href="http://www.rzym.pan.pl/en/about-us/polish-academy-of-sciences">Polish Academy of Sciences</a> have been investigating the decline of animals with white fur. The researchers warn that these creatures are especially vulnerable to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hurricanes-stronger-climate-change/">climate change</a>, as reduced snow cover makes it difficult for them to evade predators.

In the winter months, one subspecies of weasel replaces its brownish fur with a white coat so that it will be camouflaged by its surroundings. 

The research team captured and recorded 118 weasels in the Białowieża Forest between 1997 and 2007, some with white winter coats and others who kept their brown fur. 

According to the study, the number of days with permanent snow cover in the forest were cut in half - from 80 days to 40 days - between 1997 and 2007.

“In our study, the densities of weasels are about four to five times lower than 10 years ago,” said study co-author and biologist Dr. Karol Zub. This decline can be attributed to what experts call camouflage mismatch. In this case, white fur makes the weasels stand out.

Dr. Zub explained that camouflage mismatch may lead to the extinction of the white subspecies, which could be completely replaced by the brown subspecies. On the days without snow cover, as few as 20 percent of the total white-coated weasels were observed, indicating that many had been killed.

“By analyzing trapping data, we found the share of white subspecies in the weasel population inhabiting Bialowieza Forest decreases with decreasing numbers of days with snow cover,” said Dr. Zub.

“This led us to hypothesize selective predation pressure should favor one of the two phenotypes, according to the prevailing weather conditions in winter.”

“A simple field experiment with weasel models (white and brown), exposed against different background colors, revealed contrasting models faced significantly higher detection by predators.”

As snow cover continues to decline in some regions, other white-furred mammals and birds such as the Arctic fox will also be affected. However, there is some hope that animals will find ways to safely adapt to the changing climate conditions.

“We should not underestimate the power of natural selection,” said Dr. Zub. “We hope that along with future climate warming, autumn temperatures will also increase, providing an additional signal to the weasels to delay their moult.”

“Last autumn in our study was mild and under such conditions about half the weasels we observed started to moult at the beginning of January, whereas most weasels complete their moult by the end of November.”

The research was published in the journal <a href="http://www.nature.com/srep/">Scientific Reports</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Declining snow cover threatens survival of white-furred animals

Experts at the Polish Academy of Sciences have been investigating...

The opioid crisis has reached every corner of the United States, from sea to shining sea. Now, it seems, opioid addiction worries have trickled into the ocean itself off the coast of Washington. Scientists studying mussels transplanted into Puget Sound have discovered trace amounts of oxycodone in the shellfish.

"We found antibiotics, we found antidepressants, chemotherapy drugs, heart medications and then also oxycodone in the mussels from these mostly urbanized areas," biologist Dr. Jennifer Lanksbury told Seattle’s <a href="https://www.king5.com/article/tech/science/environment/opioids-found-in-puget-sound-mussels/281-558028458">K5 News</a>. Lanksbury led the study for the <a href="https://wdfw.wa.gov/">Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife</a>.

Every two years, the Puget Sound Mussel Monitoring Program takes mussels from uncontaminated water on Whidbey Island and transplant them for three winter months in Puget Sound.

Since mussels are filter feeders – animals that eat by straining food particles and other matter from the water around them – contaminants from polluted water tend to build up in their tissues over time.

After three months, each group of mussels is brought back to the lab and tested to see which pollutants might be found in the Seattle inlet.

The good news is that the problem is not widespread – yet. Oxycodone was only found in three groups of mussels, out of 18 total sets, and only in small amounts. And medical contaminants, which likely came from treated wastewater, were found only in the urban test sites, not in commercial shellfish beds.

“The concentrations of oxycodone in the mussels were about a hundred to five hundred times less than you would get in a normal therapeutic dose for humans,” Lanksbury told K5 News. “So you would have to eat a hundred-fifty pounds of mussels from that contaminated area to even get a minimal dose.”

The findings do raise concerns for other marine wildlife, however. Unlike humans, animals like chinook salmon are affected by a much lower dose of opioids like oxycodone.

“Because we’re finding them in mussels, that means that these chemicals are present in the water and that means that they’re likely affecting the fish and other invertebrates,” Lanksbury said.

—

By Kyla Cathey, <a href="http://www.earth.com">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Opioid crisis trickles down into the waters of Puget Sound

The opioid crisis has reached every corner of the United...

Iridescent colors on birds and insects stand out brightly to the human eye. In nature, though, iridescent coloring could act as a sort of camouflage against predatory insects.

Scientists studying bumblebees found that iridescence seems to confuse their ability to identify shapes. 

In an experiment, researchers created artificial flowers in a variety of shapes, then provided sugar water in some of the fake blooms. The bees quickly learned to recognize which shapes meant they’d be able to find the false nectar.

But when they made the flowers from iridescent materials, the bees were not able to recognize the shapes any longer, the scientists said. 

Since bumblebees’ eyes are very similar in structure to other predatory insects like wasps and hornets, the researchers believe that iridescent coloring in some animals may have begun as a way to avoid predators.

"It's the first solid evidence we have that this type of coloration can be used in this way,” said lead author Dr. Karin Kjernsmo, of the <a href="http://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a>.

Iridescent colors go beyond hue. Regular, repeating nanostructures change how an iridescent object reflects light, creating the effect of a changing color. Think peacock feathers, dragonflies, or shiny green beetles. 

“If you are a visual predator searching for the specific shape of a beetle (or other prey animal), iridescence makes it difficult for predators to identify them as something edible,” Kjernsmo said in a press release. “We are currently studying this effect using other visual predators, such as birds as well. This because birds are likely to be the most important predators of iridescent insects."

Previous research included a study that found <a href="https://www.livescience.com/50616-iridescent-animals-confuse-predators.html">quails are less accurate</a> when pecking at iridescent fake bugs than at plain black ones, but this is the first study on predatory insects.

In the past, biologists thought iridescent colors were mainly used to attract a mate. Although naturalist Abbott Thayer’s work linking iridescence and camouflage helped inspire the “razzle dazzle” camouflage of World War I battleships, scientists have only recently begun to find evidence that his theories were correct.

The study has been published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-26571-6">Scientific Reports</a>.

—

By Kyla Cathey,<a href="http://www.earth.com"> Earth.com</a> staff writer

Image source: Dr. Karin Kjernsmo, <a href="http://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a>

Iridescent colors could have started out as camouflage

Iridescent colors on birds and insects stand out brightly to...

Attaching human cells to a chicken embryo have allowed scientists to make a major leap forward in their knowledge of how human fetuses develop. The new technique could give medical researchers important new data about fetal health in future experiments – but not everyone is happy about it.

A headline in the Daily Mail called the experiment a “half-man half-chicken abomination.” One Twitter user compared the experiment to the monstrous characters of “The Island of Dr. Moreau.” Others questioned the ethics around creating human-animal hybrids.

It isn’t the first time scientists have created hybrids in a lab, though the technology is relatively new. In 2016, scientists at the <a href="https://www.salk.edu/">Salk Institute</a> announced that they’d created a “chimera” – an embryo with both pig and human cells.

Even then, the news made some recoil. 

“I find these experiments disturbing. In mythology human-animal chimeras were frightening monsters for good reason,” <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-4161022/Human-animal-hybrid-embryo-created-time.html">David King told the Daily Mail</a>. “I don't recall these scientists asking for the public's opinion before going ahead with such experiments.”

Vice spoke to a medical ethicist about the experiments, but included a manipulated image that showed an artist’s imagining of a <a href="https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/jpdmmy/was-it-wrong-for-scientists-to-create-a-pig-human-hybrid-embryo">full-grown human-pig chimera</a> (the actual embryos were destroyed at four weeks old). 

But the Salk Institute team says their research can help provide a way to grow organs tailored specifically for individual transplant patients, saving countless lives by preventing organ rejection or long waits on transplant lists. 

“One reason that human-pig hybrids are a source of anxiety is that they can conjure up a fear of our own death,” Dr. Brock Baston, a psychologist at the <a href="https://theconversation.com/wary-of-human-animal-hybrids-its-probably-just-your-own-moral-superiority-72720">University of Melbourne</a>, wrote for <a href="https://theconversation.com/wary-of-human-animal-hybrids-its-probably-just-your-own-moral-superiority-72720">The Conversation</a> in February 2017. “The possibility that a pig could grow your next pancreas is a cogent reminder that humans are also animals, and this very biological reminder can create existential angst.”

Previous research into chimeras included growing rat pancreatic tissue in mice. Scientists at <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/">Stanford University</a> have announced their plans to create a sheep-human chimera using stem cells. 

And now, the team of biologists led by Dr. Ali Brivenlau of <a href="https://www.rockefeller.edu/">Rockefeller University</a> has used a chicken embryo infused with human cells to study the process by which organizer cells lay out a fetus.

If people find the research so disturbing, why use human-animal hybrids at all?

Brivenlau’s team grafted human organizer cells onto a chicken embryo because of U.S. laws limiting the use of human embryos and tissue in research.

Organizer cells determine which part of an embryo will become the head, feet, front or back. They’ve been observed in other animals, and experiments on salamanders have demonstrated how “confusing” the organizer cells can lead to conjoined twins or other issues.

But salamanders and humans are different, and scientists wanted to observe how human organizer cells worked. The problem is that legally, scientists cannot experiment with human embryos more than 14 days old, which is too young to study the organizer cell process. Before the experiment, researchers weren’t even sure that humans had organizer cells, or that they worked like the ones seen in fish and amphibians.

“No one knew what happens after the ball of cells attaches itself to the uterus,” Brivenlau told <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/hybrid-human-chicken-embryos-illuminate-key-developmental-milestone/">Scientific American</a>.

So they used a chicken embryo, but infused with human cells that would cause it to behave like a human one. The hybrid did not live long enough to hatch.

Learning how the organizer cells work in humans might someday allow scientists to use stem cells to regenerate organs and other tissues. But without the chicken embryo hybrid – or chimeras using other animals – researchers can’t legally study those organizer cells.

“Human embryonic stem cells and eggs have all the information,” Brivanlou told Scientific American. “Everything else is pushing the first domino.”

The study has been published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-05202-0">Nature</a>.

—

By Kyla Cathey,<a href="http://www.earth.com"> Earth.com</a> staff writer

Image credit: Laboratory of Stem Cell Biology and Molecular Embryology, <a href="https://www.rockefeller.edu/">Rockefeller University</a>

Human cells in chicken embryo offer major breakthrough

Attaching human cells to a chicken embryo have allowed scientists...

Thanks to a more than $1.3 million grant, woolly mammoths and saber-toothed cats could someday be reborn. A new DNA bank for extinct animal species, known as the CryoArks Biobank, is the first effort to create a zoological biobank in the UK.

The DNA bank will also include samples from endangered species. The collection will allow researchers from all over the UK to study species and learn how they evolved, and what factors played a role in their rise and decline. 

“Strategic sampling and careful storage allows us to measure shifts in key data such as species number and biodiversity and also chart biological adaptations to climate and habitat change,” said Tim Littlewood, who heads the Life Sciences department at the <a href="http://www.nhm.ac.uk/">Natural History Museum</a> in London. The museum will donate DNA samples to the biobank. 

The collection will provide a record of species that lived on Earth, so that they can still be studied even after they’ve disappeared. It may even be able to harvest and preserve DNA from samples of long-dead species kept in museums, allowing them to someday be recreated.

The genetic samples will be preserved at very low temperatures to prevent degradation.

The work will be supported by a £1 million grant – about $1.33 million – from the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council, which maintains a fund for sponsoring bioinformatics and biological research and resources.

Other institutions that will donate genetic material to the DNA bank are <a href="https://www.nms.ac.uk/">National Museums Scotland</a>, <a href="http://www.rzss.org.uk/">Royal Zoological Society of Scotland</a>, <a href="https://www.edinburghzoo.org.uk/">Edinburgh Zoo</a>, <a href="https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/">University of Nottingham</a> and <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk/">University of Edinburgh</a>. 

The CryoArks project will also be linked to already-existing biobanks in the UK and Europe, such as the <a href="https://frozenark.org/">Frozen Ark</a>. The project will be led by Dr. Mike Bruford of <a href="https://www.cardiff.ac.uk/">Cardiff University</a>.

“Collections of tissue and DNA from laboratories, zoos, aquariums and museums will come together under a single structure, providing us with an unparalleled opportunity to better manage and share the vast amount of genetic material we have,” Bruford said in a press release. “It will allow researchers and conservationists to access material they never thought existed – including samples from wild populations and animals that are now extinct.”

—

By Kyla Cathey,<a href="http://www.earth.com"> Earth.com</a> staff writer

New DNA bank could help recreate extinct animal species

Thanks to a more than $1.3 million grant, woolly mammoths...

Commercial paleontology can quickly drift into moral grey areas.  Many people question the practice of selling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shell-fossils-reveal-earths-climate/">fossils</a> for profit at all.  I would counter this by saying that museums also sell and buy fossils, and targeting commercial dealers artificially divides industry from academia.  In fact, museums are often clients of commercial companies I’ve worked for. How the ivory trade impacts commercial paleontology also changes a lot.

Having worked in commercial paleontology for years, I have found that most in the field are able to distinguish scientific valuable finds from those less useful, and target academic organizations to acquire those fossils beneficial to science.  I’m also a bit hesitant to let government decide how people will deal with everything discovered on private land, as public land is completely out of the reach of law abiding commercial paleontology. Personally, I feel public land should remain public in all aspects.

Ivory plays an interesting role in the debate over commercial paleontology.  In a business showroom I recently visited, enormous tusks arch in simple metal stands.  Other tusks are intricately carved with leopards and mammoths. The tusks are mammoth tusks, but if they were from animals killed by humans, the killing happened before recorded history.

But how to distinguish mammoth ivory from elephant ivory?  Some states, including California, have banned the sale of fossil ivory such as mammoth ivory to completely avoid mistaking elephant ivory for mammoth ivory.  The law in California was challenged in court by the Ivory Education Institute in November 2016, but was ultimately was upheld by the Los Angeles Supreme Court.  

The non-profit <a href="http://www.ivoryeducationinstitute.org/">Ivory Education Institute</a> argues that elephant ivory trade is already blocked by international treaties and that the California law is ‘superfluous’. The Institute says that banning ivory trade of all kinds won’t stop poaching, and a list of historical bans that failed is cited.  Prohibition didn’t stop Americans from drinking, the war on drugs hasn’t stopped us from getting high, etc. The Ivory Education Institute argues that the only way to stop poaching for ivory is for demand to be met through normal, legalized trade. 

It seems there may be some truth to the idea, if a small one.  In states like Alaska, where fossil ivory is plentiful, you can buy pieces of jewelry featuring mammoth ivory for relatively cheap.  The Ivory Education Institute goes on to argue that making ivory illegal increases scarcity, which in turn makes the existing ivory more valuable, increasing the incentive to poachers.  Diamonds come to my mind, naturally rather plentiful, some companies hoard diamonds, creating artificial scarcity and inflating their value. 

Keeping in line with legalized trade, the Ivory Education Institute goes further; saying ivory is a natural resource.  Outsiders are painted in this light as those who impose their own values on how Africans would utilize their ‘resources’.  This is the most sickening part of the Ivory Education Institute’s argument. 

Elephants are living animals.  If someone was torturing an animal for sick pleasure, I would not pause to try my best to stop them.  Outsiders imposing bans on ivory in Africa is in some ways harkening back to imperialism. The international ban on ivory though, is more like the ban on human trafficking: a moral imperative.  Further, banning the trade of ivory in the US or in California specifically says nothing about what Africans do in Africa. The truth is that different African nations have taken different approaches, such as Zimbabwe’s attempt to create a sustainable ivory trade.  Of course, without the ability to export ivory, what is done in Zimbabwe or South Africa is of limited use for their own trade.

Others have argued quite forcefully that legal trade in ivory, or indeed, in anything, fosters a black market.  If any ivory is legal, it creates the problem of verifying the status of any ivory, opening the door again to poachers. How the ivory trade impacts commercial paleontology

The Ivory Education Institute has a point, though; few legal bans have created lasting change.  For lasting change, we may look at something else: how views change. At one point, birds were at the whim of the fashion industry.  During America’s Gilded Age, hats, pins and other fashion items featuring feathers or sometimes entire birds were the height of women’s fashion.  Plume hunters that killed wild birds for their feathers made quick cash for their trade, with little care for the negative aspects. At least one early wildlife ranger was murdered for trying to protect birds from gangs of plume hunters.  It’s estimated that in 15 million birds were killed for their feathers. 

Wildlife refuges, including those protected by rangers to the death, were partially established to give birds a chance to survive in the face of plume hunting.  Bird City, a private reserve in Louisiana by Edward Avery McIlhenny, Tabasco Sauce heir, was established partially in response to plume hunters nearly wiping out Snowy Egrets.  Some surviving Snowy Egrets were taken to Avery Island where the refuge was located and introduced first through an aviary and then set free so they could continue their migration. 

Acts by the government and private individuals such as Avery did something more important than give birds safe breeding grounds.  Slowly through, public acts of compassion toward wild birds through pamphlets blasting the trade in feathers and speeches, things changed.  What ended up saving birds like the Snowy Egret wasn’t so much a ban in the feather trade. Laws, such as the 1900 Lacey Act prohibiting transport of birds across state lines that were killed in violation of state laws, didn’t stop the feather trade.  What happened is that slowly American women had a collective change of heart. Culture changed. It’s not just feathers either, it’s the fur trade as well. Furs are still sold even if they’re often socially taboo. 

The stance of The Ivory Education Institute is repulsive, not so much because it doesn’t have a certain logic to it.  I find the argument that ivory is a natural resource disgusting but it isn’t surprising. Conservationists talk of trees, rocks, minerals, fossils even hunted animals as ‘resources’ all the time.  The problem is viewing elephants, trees and even the Earth as a thing. This is a problem that we must fix in the ‘hearts and minds’ of every person in the world. We must collectively learn empathy and compassion for others and for the earth itself.    

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

How the ivory trade impacts commercial paleontology

Commercial paleontology can quickly drift into moral grey areas.  Many...

A new study has provided a more accurate picture of how pterodactyls really flew.

It turns out that previous hypotheses, artists renderings, and movies that pictured the winged dinosaurs flying like bats were all wrong. 

The research emphasizes an important point about examining fossils and drawing conclusions about an animal's movements based on its skeletal framework alone.

In the case of pterosaurs, it was long assumed that these dinosaurs flew like bats with their limbs splayed apart because they had wings that were supported by a fourth finger, just like bats. 

However, researchers from <a href="https://www.brown.edu/">Brown University</a> conclude that this movement was likely impossible because of limitations with the pterodactyl’s ligaments, something not apparent from fossil evidence alone. 

For the study, researchers took into account the soft tissues of pterosaurs, and to get a better idea of how the dinosaurs may have moved, they used a dead quail because birds are the closest living relative to pterosaurs. 

The muscles were cut away from the quail’s hip joints and the researchers took X-ray videos while manipulating the joints. The range of motion for the quail was then mapped with the ligaments attached and the results showed that the ligaments greatly limited the bird’s movements. 

To better explain the difference and show that the bat pose among pterosaurs was likely impossible, the researchers used a grocery store chicken as an example. 

“If you pick up a raw chicken at the grocery store and move its joints, you’ll reach a point where you’ll hear a pop,” said Armita Manafzadeh, a co-author of the study. “That’s the ligaments snapping. But if I handed you a chicken skeleton without the ligaments, you might think that its joints could do all kinds of crazy things. So the question is, if you were to dig up a fossil chicken, how would you think its joints could move, and how wrong would you be?” 

In order to achieve the bat pose while flying, the quail ligament would have to stretch 63 percent beyond its capabilities. 

“That’s a huge difference that would need to be accounted for before it can be argued that a pterosaur or ‘four-winged dinosaur’s hip would be able to get into this bat-like pose,” said Manafzadeh. 

The results show how important it is to consider soft tissues when modeling movements of fossils and long extinct species, and now future studies will be able to create a better picture of pterosaurs’ flight.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Pterodactyls did not fly like bats, new study finds

A new study has provided a more accurate picture of...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...