Big,Cuttlefish,Hanging,In,The,Blue,Water,Close,Up,Photo

Cuttlefish, small marine animals that are masters of disguise, have left researchers wide-eyed by demonstrating high levels of self-control and an innate ability to wait, think, and make smart decisions. 



These highly-intelligent relatives of octopuses and squids have shown they’re capable of pausing for better rewards at a later point in time. 



It’s the same idea behind a popular test originally given to kids to see if they could wait for a bigger treat. Instead of marshmallows, though, these sea critters wait for shrimp.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ability-of-cuttlefish-to-wait">Ability of cuttlefish to wait</h2>



The findings come from a <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2020.3161" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> where scientists adapted <a href="https://www.universityofcalifornia.edu/news/marshmallow-test-revisited" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the famous marshmallow test</a> to measure whether cuttlefish would pass on a snack if it meant enjoying tastier food later.



After it was confirmed they could hold out for something better, the team took things a step further. They checked if the same animals that showed self-control would also do well on a learning task. They did.&nbsp;



This is according to behavioral ecologist Alexandra Schnell from the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a> in the UK, whose team first confirmed that cuttlefish could hold back their impulses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peeking-inside-clever-minds">Peeking inside clever minds</h2>



Cuttlefish belong to a group of animals known for surprising feats. Certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopuses-could-dominate-earth-if-humans-vanish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">octopuses</a> have been filmed using coconut shells as portable hideouts.



Some squids communicate with patterns on their bodies. But these findings raised a question for Dr. Schnell’s team: do cuttlefish also show <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cuttlefish-camouflage-is-much-more-complex-and-mind-boggling-than-initially-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">problem-solving skills</a> that appear in large-brained animals like crows and chimpanzees? 



One <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2020.3161" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experiment</a> put that question to the test by letting the cuttlefish choose between a snack they could get right away or an even better snack if they waited. As soon as they picked the immediate option, the better meal disappeared.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-cuttlefish-waiting-matters">Why cuttlefish waiting matters </h2>



When kids take part in a marshmallow test, they might look around nervously or cover their eyes so they don’t eat the treat too soon. In dogs, a similar ability to delay reward has been <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/srep42459" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studied</a> using treat tests.



While most of our beloved pets struggle to resist, some can wait longer than others. This skill often suggests a capacity for planning ahead. 



Cuttlefish, though, have never been known to rely on food storing or shared group behavior that might explain why they’d stand to benefit from waiting. So, a patient cuttlefish is a bit of a head-scratcher.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-food-to-camouflage">From food to camouflage</h2>



The study was carried out in collaboration with senior scientist <a href="https://www.mbl.edu/research/faculty-and-whitman-scientists/Roger%20Hanlon" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Roger Hanlon</a> at the Marine Biological Laboratory (<a href="https://www.mbl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MBL</a>). One theory for this behavior points to the cuttlefish’s defensive strategies. 



They spend a lot of time blending in with their surroundings to avoid being eaten. That means they can’t just dart around all day in search of nibbles. 



In many cases, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cuttlefish-form-false-memories-events-similar-human-brains/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ability to hold out</a> might help cuttlefish wait for better prey, rather than risk revealing themselves for something mediocre. 



“Cuttlefish in the present study were all able to wait for the better reward and tolerated delays for up to 50-130 seconds, which is comparable to what we see in large-brained vertebrates such as chimpanzees, crows, and parrots,” said Dr. Schnell. 



A team of six cuttlefish proved they could hang back for up to about 130 seconds, which is roughly two minutes.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cuttlefish-wait-and-adapt-quickly">Cuttlefish wait and adapt quickly</h2>



Cuttlefish aren’t known to be social, nor do they spend time carrying objects to build complex traps. But <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-cuttlefish-instantly-change-their-skin-color-based-on-what-they-see-and-feel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">they do learn quickly</a>.



To measure that, the team placed two distinct shapes in the tank. One symbol signaled a reward if they touched it. 



Later, the scientists switched the meaning. The cuttlefish had to figure out that the “correct” shape now meant something else entirely. 



This is called a reversal-learning task, and it often trips up animals that rely on routine. Oddly enough, the cuttlefish that were better at waiting for a shrimp snack also learned this shape-swapping game in fewer tries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-memories-that-stay-sharp">Memories that stay sharp</h2>



Longer <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0038125" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> on cuttlefish hint they may also have a good handle on remembering past events. 



Researchers have tested whether these animals recall what they ate, when they ate it, and where they found it. Their memory holds up, even when they’re older. 



Other <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(24)01547-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> show they might sometimes form mistaken memories. That means the way they store events in their minds could be as twisty as it is in humans. 



Cuttlefish may even exhibit different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-three-fish-make-a-school-study-offers-surprising-insights/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">responses</a> to misleading cues, suggesting a process much like our own memory reconstruction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-intelligence">Understanding intelligence</h2>



Biologists studying big brains in animals often look at <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-group-cohesion-common-enemy-effect-do-not-kill-inside-their-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primates</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-care-more-about-unmet-expectations-than-fairness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">corvids</a>, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parrots-have-a-unique-voice-print-similar-to-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parrots</a>, because these groups seem to come up with creative solutions to daily challenges. 



The cuttlefish’s ability to hold back in a waiting game is a strong clue that self-control doesn’t always depend on working in teams or building fancy tools. It could arise from a creature’s environment. 



In this case, it might have grown out of the cuttlefish’s camouflage routine and the need to pick high-quality prey without exposing itself to danger.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



Cuttlefish might not make complicated gadgets or team up to hunt in packs, yet they handle some tasks as well as animals famous for smarts.&nbsp;



That raises a puzzle about how intelligence evolves in separate branches of the animal kingdom. 



Scientists have speculated that these brainy feats can pop up when a species needs to adapt in special ways, whether to outwit predators or to find hidden meals.



The team's research was published in <a href="http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/lookup/doi/10.1098/rspb.2020.3161" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.



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Cuttlefish show levels of self-control and reasoning that rivals that of primates

Cuttlefish, small marine animals that are masters of disguise, have left researchers wide-eyed by demonstrating high levels of self-control and an innate ability to wait, think, and make smart decisions. These highly-intelligent relatives of octopuses and squids have shown they’re capable of pausing for better rewards at a later point in time.  It’s the same idea behind a popular test originally given to kids to see if they could wait for a bigger treat. Instead of marshmallows, though, these sea critters wait for shrimp. Ability of cuttlefish...

While thousands of years of selective breeding have greatly distanced the temperament of wolves from the canines that inhabit our homes, there are still numerous similarities between our lovable pets and their wild cousins. 

Now, a new study published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos">Royal Society Open Science</a> shows how some <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/humans-brain-structure-dogs/">dog</a> breeds act more like wolves than others.

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.unipi.it/index.php/english">University of Pisa</a> in Italy studied three breeds to compare their behavior and how much they relied on humans – determined through increased staring at their owners and nearby humans, which is associated with high levels of trust and dependency. 

Human-directed gazing has been established as a marker of dog-human communication and is believed to derive from both domestication and breed selection.

In this study, researchers trained the dogs to find food hidden under a metal strainer. After each dog successfully found the food, they then made the task impossible by screwing the strainer to a piece of plywood. 

From the total of 56 dogs that were tested, 43 solved the initial task at least four times before they were tested at the unsolvable stage. 

“In the solvable trials, all the dogs quickly learned how to obtain the reward by manipulating the apparatus with their mouths or paws,” the researchers say. But in the impossible trial is where the differences between breeds emerged.

Czechoslovakian wolf-dogs spent significantly longer investigating the screwed-down strainer, taking more time attempting to manipulate the apparatus and spending barely longer than a second staring at their humans, appealing for help. 

On the opposite side of the spectrum, Labradors spent an average of 4.5 seconds using human-directed gazing in an attempt to get their owner to help them solve the task. German Shepherds’ behavior landed in between these two other breeds.

“This finding indicates a strong variability in the level of persistence to manipulate the apparatus in our dog groups despite their similar habits and rearing conditions, with the Czechoslovakian Wolf-dogs showing a more ‘wolf-like’ behavior, probably due to its genetic closeness to the wild ancestors,” the researchers explain.

“Our findings suggest that despite the numerous crossing with German Shepherd after the first hybrid litter, the artificial selection operated on Czechoslovakian Wolf-dogs has produced a breed more similar to ancient breeds (more genetically close to wolves due to a less-intense artificial selection) and not particularly human oriented,” the researchers concluded.

So if you succumb easily to puppy-dog eyes, it’s likely that Labradors can have quite the effect on you. But if you’re looking for a more independent breed that is less likely to give you a guilt-tripping stare down, Czechoslovakian Wolf-dogs could be the breed for you.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Eric Krouse

Why some dogs are needy while others are more independent

While thousands of years of selective breeding have greatly distanced...

Sustainable freshwater fishkeeping: Insights from aquarist Rachel O'Leary

Sustainable freshwater fishkeeping: Insights from aquarist Rachel O'Leary. There are...

Seabirds that dive into the salty waves to grab tasty morsels of fish aren’t looking to the sea for cues but instead watch and copy other diving birds, a new study shows. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> filmed European shags diving off the Isles of Scilly. 

The study, published in the journal PLOS ONE, is the first of it’s kind to examine the diving behavior of large groups or “rafts” or seabirds, and the results show that the birds keep a close eye on their neighbors. 

“Our results suggest these birds aren’t just reacting to underwater cues when deciding where and when to dive,” said Dr. Julian Evans, the leader of the study. “They respond to social cues by watching their fellow birds and copying their behavior.”

After filming the birds, the researchers found that a bird was twice as likely to dive for fish once it saw another shag doing so. 

If a bird sees another dive and come up empty-handed, then diving is probably not worth it. But if a seabird dives and comes up with a bill full of fish, diving becomes a much safer bet. 

“They’re essentially using other flock members as sources of information, helping them choose the best place to find fish,” said Evans. 

It is not entirely clear why the birds choose to wait and watch, but the researchers suggest that it could save energy and reduce the number of unproductive dives. 

“Diving in the same area as another bird might also be beneficial because the prey might be disorganised, pushed into certain areas or fatigued by previous divers,” said Evans. 

Shag seabirds are listed on the UK’s <a href="https://www.bto.org/our-science/publications/psob">Birds of Conservation Concern</a> red list and habitat loss, fish stock declines, and climate change are contributing to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seabird-numbers-drop/">seabird losses.</a> 

According to the researchers, understanding why seabirds behave the way they do can help inform conservation policy and wildlife management. 

--

By<a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com"> Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Wolfgang Kruck

Seabirds copy their neighbors when diving for fish

Seabirds that dive into the salty waves to grab tasty...

Gene losses helped dolphins transition to life underwater. Fifty million years ago, the ancestors of modern whales, dolphins, and porpoises underwent a drastic change of scenery. Once at home on land and in the water, cetaceans decided to forgo their landlubber ways and opt for a full time underwater existence. 

Now, a team of researchers has discovered which genomic changes and adaptations helped make this transition possible. 

There is a reason that whales are a close evolutionary cousin of hippos, it's because cetaceans split off from the ancestors of modern hippopotamuses during the Early Eocene Period. 

During the switch from land to sea, 85 genes in cetaceans became inactivated or turned off. Not all these gene losses specifically aided in the transition to an aquatic habitat, but some mutations equipped the animals with new abilities like deep-sea diving and sleeping underwater. 

The researchers went hunting for gene-inactivating mutations that popped up as cetaceans started living underwater and analyzed 19,769 genes from 62 mammal species. 

One of the inactivated genes identified was involved in saliva, something no longer necessary with an aquatic diet. Two of the lost genes helped with blood clotting, which could have hindered deep dives. 

Not surprisingly, cetaceans also lost genes that were linked to lung use and allowed the lungs to collapse while diving. This helped with reducing buoyancy and adjusting the pressure changes as the animals surfaced. 

Ancient whale ancestors also adapted different sleeping patterns after losing the ability to synthesize melatonin. 

A study detailing these genomic changes, published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aaw6671">Science Advances</a>, provides insight into how ancient cetaceans evolved. 

--

By<a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com"> Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Andrea Izzotti

Gene losses helped dolphins transition to life underwater

Gene losses helped dolphins transition to life underwater. Fifty million...

Bobcats prove resilient in the face of human development. It’s easy to look at the loss of wildlife across the United States and feel despair. Grizzly bears, bison, and <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/domesticated-dogs-prosocial-wolves/">wolves</a> live on a tiny fraction of their former range with pitifully small populations. Passenger pigeons that once filled our skies as living, moving clouds of feathered beings are gone forever. 

Stretching back towards the beginning of human occupation in North America, we’ve lost the mastodon, woolly rhinoceros, and giant ground sloths. Despite their popularity from Game of Thrones, dire wolves are also extinct. 

But there is still plenty of life on Earth, and in North America in particular, to celebrate. Despite centuries as the object of violence, coyotes still live in the United States in enormous numbers. And despite being mismanaged, fought over, and used as political pawns, there are still some wolves, bison and grizzly bears. There are also smaller wild animals that quietly adapt to the changes in their environments and live near us without being given much notice. Bobcats prove resilient in the face of human development

Bobcats (Lynx rufus) have indeed shown to be resilient in the face of a rapidly changing landscape. Bobcats live in every state of the contiguous United States except Delaware, as well as southern Canada and much of Mexico. The bobcat has adapted to numerous habitats across that range from deserts to wetlands to cold northern forests. According to the <a href="https://wildcatconservation.org/wild-cats/north-america/bobcat/">International Society for Endangered Cats</a>, bobcats are the most successful of North Americas wild cats.

Humans are still one of the major threats to bobcats, as humans hunt them, destroy their habitat, and accidentally kill them with cars and rat poison. One study showed that the leading cause of death among bobcats is feline scabies, which has been linked to anticoagulant rat poisons. If a bobcat eats a poisoned rat, there’s a strong likelihood that the cat will die as well. 

Bobcat furs also lead the industry in feline skins with an average of 29,772 skins exported annually from the US between 2000 and 2006.  Because the human population is constantly on the rise, bobcats have had to contend more and more with our species. What was once wild habitat has increasingly become backyards, farmland, or golf courses. Because of these threats, conservation laws have protected bobcats throughout their range, with hunting being managed in 38 states, 7 Canadian provinces, and Mexico. The cats for their part have proven their ability to not only live but thrive near and in human dominated landscapes.           

Much of the bobcat’s success comes from the abundance of their prey base. Bobcats <a href="https://www.desertmuseum.org/kids/oz/long-fact-sheets/Bob-cat.php">mainly feed</a> on rabbits and hares, small herbivorous mammals in no shortage almost anywhere in the US. Walk around a city park, there’s probably one of those little rabbits hiding somewhere under a bush nibbling on grass. They visit our lawns and they do well in the deserts, prairies, forests and wetlands outside of city areas as well. Besides their preferred food, bobcats are also flexible, eating lizards, small rodents, birds, snakes, roadkill. Bobcats have even been known to rarely kill a deer. 

Another part of bobcat’s success is that they’re inconspicuous. Like urban coyotes, bobcats are mainly active at night, although they can adjust their schedule a bit depending on the local conditions. In <a href="http://www.urbancarnivores.com/bobcats">urban areas</a> bobcats are especially nocturnal. Bobcats also move around a lot to avoid being caught by a predator and to find their own prey. 

In Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation Area, California, a male bobcat’s home range is typically 3.2 square miles. Females move around less with a typical home range of about 1.5 square miles. Of course, the home range of bobcats vary depending on the habitat. 

Bobcats find temporary dens to rest in during the day and often move to a new den the next day, rarely staying in one spot for very long. Mother bobcats will often create several dens when they are about to have kittens. The mother then moves her kittens from one den to the next. Moving around like this, especially at night is one of the reasons bobcats are easily missed, even if they live in close proximity to humans.

Recently, a photographer published a <a href="https://www.biographic.com/posts/sto/bobcat-manor">photo essay</a> following a mother bobcat that raised her kittens beneath the porch of a house in western Texas. This is one example of a bobcat adapting to a new way of living, raising her cubs in the shade of a house during the day and hunting in the scrublands surrounding the house at dusk and dawn. 

Bobcats have been known to hunt at backyard bird feeders and eat roadkill along city streets. An <a href="https://phys.org/news/2017-05-populations-bobcats-urban-pest.html">article</a> from 2017 reported that bobcats have made homes in Manchester, New Hampshire, Waverly, Iowa and just outside of Los Angeles. One wildlife photographer <a href="http://dfwurbanwildlife.com/2018/05/09/chris-jacksons-dfw-urban-wildlife/are-there-coyotes-and-bobcats-in-your-neighborhood/">claims</a> based on his own observations that almost every neighborhood in the greater Dallas Fort Worth area is home to bobcats.

Indeed, bobcats have made a serious comeback in the United States. A 2010 <a href="https://fwspubs.org/doi/pdf/10.3996/122009-JFWM-026">study</a> estimated a US bobcat population of roughly 2.3 million to almost 3.6 million, as much as triple their population in the 1980s. Relying on data from 2016, the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/12521/50655874">IUCN</a> says the bobcat population is stable with no major threat to their survival. A <a href="https://wildcatconservation.org/wild-cats/north-america/bobcat/">2011 survey</a> looked at bobcat populations in 48 states, 7 Canadian provinces and Mexico, finding that bobcat populations have grown everywhere except for Florida. Like coyotes, bobcats have shown themselves capable of adapting, even thriving among humans.

Despite the successful recovery of bobcats from their lowest populations, it’s still worth remembering that although the cats are cunning and adaptable, they still rely on us to allow them to live. The fur trade if not well managed can threaten bobcats, rat poisons still cause the deaths of bobcats, and other predators. For now bobcats are thriving, but that success depends on food, water, places to live either in the wild or in more urban environments. The question for the future is whether humans will be happy to see bobcats living among them or if they will be treated as a nuisance like pigeons, coyotes or prairie dogs?              

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/David Hoffmann Photography

Bobcats prove resilient in the face of human development

Bobcats prove resilient in the face of human development. It’s...

For decades, scientists have debated whether nonhuman species may possess the ability to understand the mental states of others. A new study suggests that our close evolutionary relatives - great apes such as <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-hunting-eating-crabs/">chimpanzees</a> and orangutans - have a theory of mind which allows them to acknowledge the beliefs, emotions, intentions, and desires of themselves and others. 

A study by Fumihiro Kano of <a href="https://www.kyoto-u.ac.jp/en/">Kyoto University</a>, in collaboration with experts at the Kumamoto Sanctuary and Primate Research Institute, the Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, and the University of St Andrews, had previously demonstrated that great apes can anticipate a human's actions. This research produced the strongest evidence to date that great apes possess a theory of mind.

"We initially created a movie based on an established psychological test - especially exciting for apes - and combined this with eye-tracking technology to record gaze patterns indicating anticipation of an agent's behavior based on an understanding of the agent's false belief," said Kano.

The experiment revealed that the apes understood when a human had a false belief about the location of an object. The apes appeared to demonstrate the ability to anticipate the individual's actions while searching for the object, which had often been translocated.

However, it was possible that the apes did not genuinely understand the person's false belief, but instead relied on specific rules about the individual's behavior. To investigate, the team applied new conditions to the experiment, in which the apes were exposed to either a "true" barrier made of an opaque material, or to a "trick" barrier that appears to be opaque from a distance but becomes transparent up close.

In a new video shown to the apes, an agent can be seen hiding behind a barrier while an object is translocated to the front of it. The barrier is identical in appearance to the ones given to the apes, which allowed the researchers to evaluate whether the two groups of apes could infer the agent's ability or inability to see through the barrier based on their own experiences.

The team observed that, with the opaque barrier, the apes anticipated that the agent would go to the location that was last seen. With the trick barrier, the apes anticipated that the agent would not go to either location because the object had been removed entirely.

According to the researchers, their findings ruled out a simple behavioral explanation because the two groups of apes anticipated the agent's behavior based on what they had encountered themselves.

"We are excited to find that great apes actually passed this difficult test," said Kano. "The results suggest that we share this ability with our evolutionary cousins. We plan to continue refining our methods to test further non-mentalistic alternatives to the theory of mind in nonhuman animals."

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Lorna Roberts

Great apes can understand the complex mental states of others

For decades, scientists have debated whether nonhuman species may possess...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-rex-air-conditioning-system/">Tyrannosaurus rex</a> was once a formidable predator. With a mouth full of serrated teeth, a six-foot-long skull, and a bite that could shatter bone with one crunch, there’s a good reason this mighty carnivore ruled supreme during the Cretaceous period.  

The bite force of T. rex was around six tons, but how it was able to clamp down with such brute strength and not damage its flexible skull has long puzzled researchers. 

It turns out that Tyrannosaurus rex’s skull wasn’t loosely jointed, similar to modern-day birds, as was previously thought. Instead, researchers from the <a href="https://missouri.edu/">University of Missouri </a>have discovered that T. rex had a rigid skull, allowing it to tear easily through the scales, flesh, and bones of its prey.  

“Previous researchers looked at this from a bone-only perspective without taking into account all of the connections — ligaments and cartilage — that really mediate the interactions between the bones,” said Kaleb Sellers, an author of the study. 

The researchers used imaging and data on anatomy and engineering to create digital models of T. rex skulls. Some of the skulls had palates that were flexible and moved like modern-day parrots or geckos. 

Then the researchers used the models to simulate chewing and see the skulls in action. 

In order to achieve a forceful bite without cracking its own skull, the roof of the mouth would have had to be rigid with very little flexibility.  

“When you put a lot of force on things, there’s a tradeoff between movement and stability,” said Casey Holliday, a co-author of the study. “Birds and lizards have more movement but less stability. When we applied their individual movements to the T. rex skull, we saw it did not like being wiggled in ways that the lizard and bird skulls do, which suggests more stiffness.”

The study, published in the journal <a href="https://anatomypubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ar.24219">the Anatomical Record</a>, not only helps set the record straight for T. rex but could also aid future anatomy research.  

“In humans, this can also be applied to how people’s jaws work, such as studying how the jaw joint is loaded by stresses and strains during chewing,” said Ian Cost, the lead researcher. “In animals, understanding how those movements occur and joints are loaded will, for instance, help veterinarians better understand how to treat exotic animals such as parrots, which suffer from arthritis in their faces.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Herschel Hoffmeyer

The secret to T. rex’s impressive bite was a stiff skull

Tyrannosaurus rex was once a formidable predator. With a mouth...

Researchers in Mexico have discovered that dung beetles are being poisoned by pesticides and veterinary pharmaceuticals that are passed into the manure that they feed on. The study, published by the <a href="https://www.setac.org/">Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry</a>, reveals that these chemicals are disrupting the growth and development of the insects.

<a href="http://www.earth.com/news/dung-beetles-important-ecosystems/">Dung beetles</a> essentially live in manure, and can be found across a diverse range of environments from deserts to forests. The beetles provide valuable ecosystem services, such as controlling pests and redepositing nutrients into the soil, which are particularly important to agriculture. 

Remarkably, dung beetles have also been found to significantly reduce methane emissions from cow manure. Simply by digging around in the dung, the beetles make more oxygen available in the deeper manure, which moderates the creation of methane. 

Despite all of the benefits they provide, however, dung beetles have been sharply declining. They are currently one of the most threatened terrestrial animal species, and the new research suggests that the contamination of their food supply is one of the primary threats.

Study lead author Daniel González-Tokman and his team have provided "the first evidence under natural conditions that native and exotic species of dung beetles are highly sensitive to different types of livestock management." 

The researchers demonstrated that the veterinary medications and herbicides used in intensive animal feeding facilities can alter the growth and development patterns of dung beetles, which reduces their ability to function. The physiological responses to the chemicals were found to be specific to the sex and species of the beetles, and were influenced by both the type of livestock management used and the density of the cattle.

According to González-Tokman, this research can help experts "understand the underlying mechanisms of species decline in nature and enrich the strategies of livestock management with benefits for grassland ecological health."

The researchers hope that their findings will lead to the development of livestock management strategies to protect dung beetles and the health of vital ecosystems. 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://setac.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/15528618">Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/wanida tubtawee

Contaminated manure is severely threatening the survival of dung beetles

Researchers in Mexico have discovered that dung beetles are being...

A coalition of attorneys general have come together to sue the Trump administration over rule changes that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trump-endangered-species-act/">weaken the Endangered Species Act</a> (ESA).

Earlier in August of this year, the Interior and Commerce Departments announced <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/12/climate/endangered-species-act-changes.html">changes to the ESA</a> that would make it easier to de-list endangered species and weaken protections for threatened populations.

Habitat designations for endangered and threatened species could be changed to allow for expanded development on once protected lands, and the new policies would also limit how scientists predict the effects of climate change on wildlife.

In another blow to the ESA, information on the economic costs of protecting wildlife can now be made public. 

The ESA was responsible for bringing the bald eagle, grizzly bear and American alligator back from the brink of extinction.  

Without robust protections in place, the United States may soon see steep biodiversity declines as development and fossil fuels continue to take precedence over conservation. 

In an effort to reverse these changes and strengthen the ESA, attorneys general in 17 states filed a lawsuit in a federal court in California, according to the <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-environment/2019/09/25/trump-administration-weakened-endangered-species-act-rules-today-state-attorneys-general-sued-over-it/">Washington Post</a>.  

“We’re going to try to undo what the president is proposing to do with the Endangered Species Act,” California Attorney General Xavier Becerra (D) said during a news conference. 

California, Maryland, Massachusetts, Colorado, Connecticut, Illinois, Michigan, Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont, and Washington are all part of the coalition.  

“As we face a climate emergency and global extinction crisis threatening more than a million species, the Trump Administration is gutting Endangered Species Act protections to pave the way for oil and gas developments,” said Massachusetts Attorney General Maura Healey in a statement. “We are suing to defend federal law and protect our imperiled wildlife and environment.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Steve Boice

17 states are suing after Trump admin weakens Endangered Species Act

A coalition of attorneys general have come together to sue...

In a new study from <a href="https://msu.edu/">Michigan State University</a> (MSU), researchers have found that inland fisheries and freshwater fish have been greatly underestimated in their contribution to feeding the global population, particularly those in poor rural areas. 

Compared to ocean fisheries, fish harvests from lakes, rivers, streams, and other inland water sources are largely overlooked. 

In collaboration with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, the MSU team has compiled the most recent data on freshwater catch. The experts also looked for innovative approaches to measure the impact that inland fisheries have on food security, sustainability, and economies. 

Based on their review of various assessments and case studies, the researchers estimate that inland <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/marine-fisheries-one-network/">fisheries</a> catch is greater than what has been documented, possibly by 21 to 51 percent. 

In terms of first landing price, the economic value of reported global inland catch is estimated at $24 billion, which is about 24 percent of the overall value for marine fisheries. Since inland catch accounts for only about 13 percent of the world's marine catch, the findings suggest that freshwater fish have a first landing price that is higher than average. 

"Inland fisheries are providing crucial micronutrients and animal-source protein to sustain some 159 million people - sometimes the only protein accessible and affordable to them," said study co-author Professor Abigail Bennett. 

"At the same time, as we're worried food production systems are threatened by climate change, agricultural runoff, habitat alteration from hydropower development and other alternative uses of freshwater. We need to be looking more closely at the efficiency of inland fisheries in respect to land, water and energy use."

According to the researchers, 95 percent of inland fisheries catch comes from developing countries, while 43 percent comes from low-income food-insecure countries.

"Even though inland fisheries catch equals 12% of global fish production (not accounting for underreporting), in particular places these catches are absolutely crucial to survival," explained study co-author Simon Funge-Smith. "Improving assessment methods is key toward ending the vicious cycle in which data gaps lead to inland fisheries being undervalued in policy discussions, and lack of policy support undermines important data tracking systems."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/14672979">Fish and Fisheries</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Maxim Gor

The nutritional and economic value of freshwater fish have been underestimated

In a new study from Michigan State University (MSU), researchers...

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> have discovered that a group of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/crows-control-calls/">crows</a> known as jackdaws send out warning calls when they identify "dangerous" humans. These birds are known to have the ability to recognize individual human faces, and they respond differently to people that they consider to be a threat. 

For the study, the team designed an experiment in which an unfamiliar person approached a jackdaw nest. Simultaneously, a recorded bird call was played that either indicated a warning or suggested there was no threat.

The birds who received a warning call were found to react defensively when they saw the same person again, rushing back to their nests more quickly.

Study lead author Victoria Lee is a PhD researcher at the Centre for Ecology and Conservation on Exeter's Penryn Campus in Cornwall.

"One of the big challenges for a lot of animals is how to live alongside humans," said Lee. "People can provide some benefits, such as the food at bird feeders, but in some cases humans are also a threat."

"Being able to discriminate between dangerous and harmless people is likely to be beneficial, and in this case we see jackdaws can learn to identify dangerous people without having had a bad experience themselves."

The study was focused on 34 jackdaw nest boxes at three sites in Cornwall. When the jackdaws were alerted to danger, they were found to return to their nest boxes more than twice as quickly upon seeing the person again. On the other hand, the birds that heard a simple contact call took their time in returning to the nest.

Furthermore, none of the calls appeared to influence how long the birds took to enter their nest box or how long they remained inside.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos">Royal Society Open Science</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a>  Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Edwin Godinho

Jackdaws can warn each other about humans they perceive as threats

Researchers at the University of Exeter have discovered that a...

Mice may fidget to help them concentrate, just like people. Have you ever started fidgeting while deep in concentration? Some people shake their legs or click a pen, while others crack their knuckles or rock in their chairs.

It turns out that humans aren’t the only fidgety thinkers, as researchers from the <a href="https://www.cshl.edu/">Cold Harbor Spring Laboratory</a> have discovered that mice also seem to fidget when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/logical-thinking-macaques/">focused on a task</a>. 

The researchers started by measuring neural activity across the top part of a mouse’s brain while the animal was making decisions with wide-field imaging. 

“You can see activity in a big part of the brain all at the same time,” said Churchland. “We usually just measure neurons in one small part of the brain at a time, and don’t usually get a whole big-picture view like this.”

Each mouse in the experiment was trained to make specific movements like grabbing a handle and licking a certain way to signify a decision. The researchers expected to see neural activity that closely related to the task at hand for the mouse, either licking or grabbing a handle. 

However, what the wide-field imaging revealed was that the decision-making process triggered a flurry of activity across the mouse’s brain. 

The team found that rather than relating to a specific movement, the activity was driven by uninstructed movements that the mouse made while working on the task. 

[caption id="attachment_1878188" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/mouse-brain-activity.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1878188" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/mouse-brain-activity.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="406" /></a> Brain activity of mice during decision making tasks. Image Credit: Anne Churchland[/caption]

“We thought the animals were 100 percent focused on our task, and the licking and the grabbing and the deciding,” said Churchland. “It turned out that they had their own set of priorities that involved a lot of movements of all different kinds.”

The fact that the movements were made while the mouse was engaged in decision making has led the researchers to compare the movements to fidgeting in people.

“One hypothesis that we find intriguing is that in some way, maybe the movements are part of the process of thinking and deciding,” said Churchland. “There might be this other aspect of fidgeting that people haven’t really considered before, which is that it’s part of how we call up that cognitive machinery.”

The researchers published their findings in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41593-019-0502-4">Nature Neuroscience</a>. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Main Image Credit: Shutterstock/Rudmer Zwerver

Mice may fidget to help them concentrate, just like people

Mice may fidget to help them concentrate, just like people....

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...