Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features NGC 1333, a reflection nebula located in the Perseus molecular cloud about 960 light-years away from Earth. The photo is a mosaic of images captured by the James Webb Space Telescope.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-power-of-webb-nbsp-nbsp">The power of Webb&nbsp;&nbsp;</h2>



“Webb’s superb sensitivity allows astronomers to investigate young objects with extremely low masses. Some of the faintest ‘stars’ in the picture are in fact newly born free-floating brown dwarfs with masses comparable to those of giant planets,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



The same cluster was featured as the 33rd anniversary image of the Hubble Space Telescope in April 2023.&nbsp;



According to ESA, Hubble’s image just scratched the surface of this region, because clouds of dust obscure much of the star formation process. 



"Observing with larger aperture and in the infrared part of the spectrum, Webb is capable of peering through the dusty veil to reveal newborn stars, brown dwarfs and planetary mass objects."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-s-view-of-ngc1333">Webb’s view of NGC1333</h2>



ESA noted that the center of the image presents a deep peek into the heart of the NGC1333 cloud.&nbsp;



“Across the image we see large patches of orange, which represent gas glowing in the infrared. These so-called Herbig-Haro objects form when ionized material ejected from young stars collides with the surrounding cloud. They are hallmarks of a very active site of star formation."



The disks of gas and dust that surround the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/newly-discovered-stars-milky-way-are-old-as-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a> in this image may eventually produce planetary systems.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-of-the-sun">Formation of the Sun</h2>



“Similar to the young stars in this mosaic, our own Sun and planets formed inside a dusty molecular cloud, 4.6 billion years ago. Our Sun did not form in isolation but as part of a cluster, which was perhaps even more massive than NGC 1333,” explained ESA.



Over time, the stars in the Sun's birth cluster would have drifted apart due to gravitational interactions and the dispersion of gas in the region.



Astronomers have been studying certain clues, such as isotopic signatures in meteorites, that hint the Sun may have formed near massive stars. These stars likely produced supernovae, which could have influenced the early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-objects-spotted-in-the-outer-solar-system-beyond-pluto/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar system</a> by injecting heavy elements like iron-60.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-in-ngc-1333">Star formation in NGC 1333</h2>



NGC 1333 is a vibrant example of a stellar nursery, where active <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-stars-release-sneezes-of-gas-and-dust-as-they-develop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> is ongoing. It is known for its chaotic appearance, shaped by the interactions between newborn stars and the surrounding material.



Within NGC 1333, astronomers have observed a high level of turbulence, which makes the region dynamic and complex. 



These disturbances are caused by the outflows of young stars as they eject material into their surroundings, creating shock waves and influencing further star formation.&nbsp;



These outflows are often seen as jets, which are visible in multiple wavelengths of light, especially infrared, as the surrounding dust absorbs visible light.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-ngc-1333">Significance of NGC 1333</h2>



NGC 1333 is also an area of interest for studying the early stages of star and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planet-formation-new-insights-mechanics-physics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet formation</a>, as many of the stars within the cluster are in their infancy, still in the process of gathering material and developing protoplanetary disks.&nbsp;



In images, NGC 1333 is marked by bright patches of blue and red, representing reflection <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/six-rogue-worlds-discovered-inside-a-young-star-forming-nebula/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nebulae</a> and the ionized gas created by energetic young stars.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-perseus-molecular-cloud-nbsp">The Perseus molecular cloud&nbsp;</h2>



The Perseus molecular cloud is a vast region of cold gas and dust located about 600 light-years away from Earth in the constellation <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/1500-billion-orphan-stars-discovered-in-the-perseus-galaxy-cluster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Perseus</a>.&nbsp;



It is one of the most studied star-forming regions in our galaxy due to its relative proximity and the diversity of its young stellar objects. This cloud spans several hundred light-years and contains dense pockets of gas where new stars are actively forming.&nbsp;



These areas are often enshrouded in thick dust, which obscures them in visible light but allows astronomers to study them using infrared and radio wavelengths.



The Perseus molecular cloud is particularly interesting because of the chemistry taking place within it, including the formation of complex organic molecules that could be precursors to life.&nbsp;



Image Credit: ESA/Webb, NASA &amp; CSA



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Stellar nursery shines in the Perseus cloud

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the galaxy NGC 2090, located approximately 40 million light-years away in the constellation Columba.



NGC 2090 is a stunning spiral galaxy that is notable for its well-defined structure, featuring a bright central core surrounded by tightly wound spiral arms.&nbsp;



These arms are filled with young, hot stars and interstellar gas, indicating active star formation.&nbsp;



Captured by the Webb Telescope’s MIRI and NIRCam instruments, the image reveals the galaxy's winding spiral arms and the swirling gas and dust of its disc in magnificent and unique detail, noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observations-of-ngc-2090">Observations of NGC 2090</h2>



The galaxy’s spiral pattern is relatively symmetrical, making it a fascinating object of study for astronomers interested in galactic evolution and dynamics.&nbsp;



Observations of NGC 2090, including those conducted by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hubble-helps-solve-the-mystery-of-a-young-eruptive-star/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hubble</a> Space Telescope, have provided valuable insights into the properties of its stellar populations, gas content, and the nature of its spiral structure.



“NGC 2090 was one of many galaxies studied by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope to refine the measurement of the Universe’s expansion rate, or ‘Hubble constant,’” said ESA.&nbsp;



“This can be done by observing a special type of variable stars named ‘Cepheids’ in relatively nearby galaxies.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-insights-into-ngc-2090">New insights into NGC 2090</h2>



A Cepheid-based measurement from 1998 indicated that NGC 2090 is 37 million light-years away from Earth. However, the latest measurements suggest that the galaxy is 40 million light-years away.



“Already before that Hubble project in 1998, NGC 2090 had been well studied as a very prominent nearby example of star formation,” noted ESA.&nbsp;



“Described as a ‘flocculent’ spiral, this galaxy has a patchy, dusty disc and arms that are flaky or not visible at all. We can see those patterns well in Hubble's visible-light images. However, Webb’s NIRCam near-infrared data reveal the spiral arms with remarkable clarity.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-spiral-galaxies">What are spiral galaxies?</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-mesmerizing-beauty-of-spiral-galaxies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Spiral galaxies</a> are among the most common and visually striking types of galaxies in the universe.&nbsp;



They are characterized by their flat, disk-like shape with a bright central bulge surrounded by sweeping spiral arms.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spiral-arms-and-central-bulge-nbsp">Spiral arms and central bulge&nbsp;</h3>



The arms of a spiral galaxy are regions where stars, gas, and dust are concentrated, often glowing brightly with the light of young, hot stars that form within them.&nbsp;



The central bulge typically contains older stars and can host a supermassive black hole at its core.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-types-of-spiral-galaxies-nbsp">Types of spiral galaxies&nbsp;</h3>



Spiral galaxies are classified into different types based on how tightly their arms are wound and the size of their central bulge, ranging from tightly wound "Sa" galaxies to loosely wound "Sc" types.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-nbsp">Star formation&nbsp;</h3>



The structure of spiral galaxies is maintained by the interplay of gravity and angular momentum, with a rotating disk of stars and gas giving rise to their iconic shape.&nbsp;



They are active sites of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-star-redefines-our-understanding-of-stellar-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> due to the abundance of gas in their arms.&nbsp;



Spiral galaxies often have a halo of older stars and globular clusters surrounding their disks, which provides clues about their formation and evolution.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-barred-spiral-galaxy">Barred spiral galaxy</h3>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-way-galaxy-is-surrounded-by-massive-magnetic-fields/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, the galaxy that contains our Solar System, is a prime example of a barred spiral galaxy, a subtype where a bar-shaped structure of stars extends from the central bulge.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-constellation-columba-nbsp">The constellation Columba&nbsp;</h2>



Columba is a small and relatively faint constellation in the southern sky, whose name means "dove" in Latin. It was introduced in the late 16th century by the Dutch astronomer Petrus Plancius and first appeared in a celestial atlas by Johann Bayer in 1603.&nbsp;



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/super-jupiter-discovered-in-the-great-bear-constellation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">constellation</a> is said to represent the dove sent out by Noah during the biblical flood, tying it to themes of hope and peace.



Columba lies near the larger constellation Canis Major and is bordered by others such as Lepus and Puppis.&nbsp;



Although it lacks particularly bright stars, its most notable star, Alpha Columbae (also called Phact), shines at a magnitude of approximately 2.6 and is a hot blue-white star. Beta Columbae, another prominent star in the constellation, is a slightly cooler, yellow-white star.



The constellation is best viewed from the Southern Hemisphere during the summer months, though it can also be seen from lower latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere.&nbsp;



Image Credit: NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope&nbsp;



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Webb unveils spiral galaxy NGC 2090 in magnificent detail

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the galaxy I Zwicky 18, which was captured in remarkable detail by the James Webb Space Telescope.



I Zwicky 18 is a blue compact dwarf <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/newly-discovered-stars-milky-way-are-old-as-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> located approximately 59 million light-years away in the constellation Ursa Major.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-in-i-zwicky-18">Star formation in I Zwicky 18</h2>



The galaxy is notable for its relatively young appearance and the fact that it contains very few heavy elements. These characteristics indicate that it has experienced little <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-stars-release-sneezes-of-gas-and-dust-as-they-develop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> compared to other galaxies of similar age.



“The galaxy was first identified by Swiss astronomer Fritz Zwicky in the 1930’s and resides roughly 59 million light-years from Earth,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>. “This galaxy has gone through several sudden bursts of star formation.”&nbsp;



According to ESA, I Zwicky 18 is typical of the kinds of galaxies that inhabited the early universe and is much smaller than our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/runaway-star-j1249-36-spotted-trying-to-escape-our-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-telescope-image-of-the-galaxy">Webb telescope image of the galaxy</h2>



“Two major starburst regions are embedded in the heart of the galaxy. The wispy brown filaments surrounding the central starburst region are bubbles of gas that have been heated by stellar winds and intense ultraviolet radiation unleashed by hot, young stars,” noted ESA.



“A companion galaxy resides nearby to the dwarf galaxy, which can be seen at the bottom of the wider-field image. The companion may be interacting with the dwarf galaxy and may have triggered that galaxy's recent star formation.”&nbsp;



ESA explained that the “orange blobs” surrounding the galaxy are the dim glow from ancient fully formed galaxies at much larger distances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-characteristics-of-i-zwicky-18">Key characteristics of I Zwicky 18</h2>



As previously mentioned, the galaxy has a very low abundance of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium, suggesting that it has not undergone significant stellar processing.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-young-stellar-population-nbsp">Young stellar population&nbsp;</h3>



Despite its old age, I Zwicky 18 contains many young, hot stars. This suggests that it might have experienced a burst of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hubble-detects-awe-inspiring-newborn-star/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> relatively recently in its history.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interstellar-medium-nbsp">Interstellar medium&nbsp;</h3>



The galaxy has a high density of gas, which is a prime ingredient for star formation. This gas is mostly in the form of hydrogen.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unusual-characteristics">Unusual characteristics</h3>



Its characteristics are more typical of primordial galaxies found in the early universe, making it a valuable object of study for understanding galaxy formation and evolution.



Ultimately, I Zwicky 18 provides insights into the conditions and processes that might have been prevalent in the early universe.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-cycles-of-stars-and-dust">Life cycles of stars and dust</h3>



The image was captured as part of a Webb program to study the life cycle of dust in I Zw 18.&nbsp;



“Scientists are now building off of previous research with Hubble obtained at optical wavelengths, studying individual dusty stars in detail with Webb’s equivalent spatial resolution and sensitivity at infrared wavelengths.”&nbsp;



ESA noted that this galaxy is of particular interest as its content of elements heavier than helium is one of the lowest of all known <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-galaxy-formation-occurred-much-faster-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> in the local universe.&nbsp;



“Such conditions are thought to be similar to those in some of the first star-forming galaxies at high redshift, so the Webb study of I Zw 18 should shed light on the life-cycle of stars and dust in the early universe.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-constellation-ursa-major">The constellation Ursa Major </h2>



Ursa Major, also known as the Great Bear, is one of the most prominent and easily recognizable constellations in the northern sky. 



Its name, "Ursa Major," means "Great Bear" in Latin, and it has been a significant part of various mythologies and star lore across cultures for thousands of years. 



One of the most famous asterisms within Ursa Major is the Big Dipper, a group of seven bright stars that form a shape resembling a ladle or dipper. The Big Dipper is often used as a navigation tool because it points to Polaris, the North Star, located in the nearby constellation Ursa Minor.



Ursa Major is best viewed in the northern hemisphere and is circumpolar, meaning it is visible year-round for much of the Northern Hemisphere. Its position changes with the seasons, rotating around Polaris, the North Star.



Image Credit: NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope



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Dwarf galaxy provides a window into the early universe

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features a satellite view of retreating glaciers in Alaska, where meltwater is rapidly expanding glacial lakes. The image was captured on August 4, 2024 by the Landsat 8 satellite.



“In parts of Alaska, water is replacing ice. As glaciers thin and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellite-images-reveal-hidden-retreat-of-arctic-glaciers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">retreat</a>, meltwater collects at their fronts, forming proglacial lakes. According to an analysis by Mauri Pelto, a glaciologist at Nichols College, three such lakes in the southeastern part of the state have grown rapidly in recent decades,” said <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-retreating-glaciers-in-alaska">Retreating glaciers in Alaska</h2>



“A trio of glaciers - Yakutat, Alsek, and Grand Plateau - descend from inland mountains and flow onto the coastal plain southeast of Yakutat borough, ending at Harlequin Lake, Alsek Lake, and Grand Plateau Lake,” noted NASA.&nbsp;



The retreat of the glaciers, as well as the growth of the lakes, are visible in the image. When compared to an <a href="https://eoimages.gsfc.nasa.gov/images/imagerecords/153000/153638/fastestlake_tm5_19840705_lrg.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">image</a> captured by Landsat 5 in the summer of 1984, the changes are even more evident.



NASA elaborated on the extent of the glacier retreat from 1984 to 2024. “During this period, Yakutat Glacier’s main arm retreated 4.3 miles, while Alsek Glacier’s northern and southern arms retreated 3.3 miles and 3.4 miles, respectively. Grand Plateau Glacier’s northern arm lost the most, retreating 4.8 miles.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glacial-lakes-doubled-in-size-nbsp">Glacial lakes doubled in size&nbsp;</h2>



“Collectively, the three lakes more than doubled in size over 40 years. In 1984, they covered about 50 square miles. By 2024, they spanned 90 square miles. That’s an area larger than Seneca Lake (67 square miles) - one of the Finger Lakes in New York, which also have a glacial origin,” said NASA.



Pelto noted that the lakes forming in this region are immense - starting at the mountains and spreading toward the coast - making this a new lake district that is unique in our nation.



“Millions of other lakes, named and unnamed, dot the state. But this system has grown fast, so much so that Pelto thinks it might represent the fastest lake growth in the United States this century,” said NASA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-glacier-retreat-nbsp">Understanding glacier retreat&nbsp;</h2>



Glacier retreat is a significant phenomenon driven primarily by global warming the results from rising greenhouse gas <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-carbon-dioxide-emissions-hit-a-record-high-in-2023/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emissions</a>. 



As temperatures rise, glaciers lose more ice during the summer melt than they can regain in winter snowfall, causing them to shrink over time. This process has profound implications for ecosystems, water resources, and global sea levels.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glacial-lakes">Glacial lakes</h3>



When glaciers retreat, they often leave behind depressions in the landscape that can fill with meltwater, forming glacial lakes. These lakes are typically bounded by natural dams made of rock, ice, or moraine - accumulations of debris left behind by the glacier's movement.&nbsp;



Over the past century, the number and size of glacial lakes worldwide have increased significantly due to the accelerating pace of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-glaciers-offer-a-glimpse-of-our-harsh-climate-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glacier</a> retreat. This trend is especially evident in high-altitude regions like the Himalayas, the Andes, and the Alps, as well as in polar areas such as Alaska and Greenland.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-positive-and-negative-impacts-nbsp">Positive and negative impacts&nbsp;</h3>



Glacial lakes can have both positive and negative impacts. They provide critical water sources for downstream communities, support biodiversity, and sometimes offer opportunities for hydropower development or tourism.&nbsp;



However, they also pose serious risks. The dams holding back these lakes can fail suddenly, causing glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs). These catastrophic events can devastate downstream areas, destroying infrastructure, agricultural lands, and habitats while endangering human lives.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-changes">Monitoring changes</h3>



Understanding glacier retreat and glacial lake formation requires a multidisciplinary approach, combining climate science, hydrology, and geology.&nbsp;



Monitoring these changes is essential to mitigate associated risks and adapt to the evolving landscape shaped by a <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fperu-has-lost-over-half-of-its-glaciers-in-six-decades%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming planet</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glacier-retreat-worldwide">Glacier retreat worldwide</h2>



Studies and satellite observations show that most glaciers in almost all regions of the world are shrinking.&nbsp;



Melting glaciers contribute significantly to global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emergency-meeting-reveals-the-alarming-extent-of-antarcticas-ice-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea level rise</a>, which threatens coastal communities and ecosystems.



The retreat of glaciers is considered one of the clearest indicators of climate change. Some glaciers are retreating at unprecedented rates, indicating accelerating climate impacts.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



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Retreating glaciers and expanding meltwater lakes in Alaska

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the star-forming region NGC 604, which is located 2.73 million light-years away from Earth in the Triangulum Galaxy (M33). The image was captured by the James Webb Space Telescope.



By studying regions like NGC 604, astronomers can gain insights into the complex interactions between stars and the interstellar medium, as well as the conditions that lead to the birth of stars. This, in turn, helps in understanding the evolution of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-like-our-own-milky-way-are-not-unique/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> and the universe as a whole.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-massive-stars-of-ngc-604">Massive stars of NGC 604</h2>



"Sheltered among NGC 604’s dusty envelopes of gas are more than 200 of the hottest, most massive kinds of stars, all in the early stages of their lives," said <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"These types of stars are known as B-types and O-types, the latter of which can be more than 100 times the mass of our own Sun. It’s quite rare to find this concentration of them in the nearby universe. In fact, there’s no similar region within our own Milky Way galaxy."



According to ESA, this concentration of massive stars, combined with its relatively close distance, means NGC 604 gives astronomers an opportunity to study these objects at a fascinating time early in their life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gigantic-region-of-ionized-hydrogen">Gigantic region of ionized hydrogen</h2>



NGC 604 is one of the largest known regions of ionized hydrogen, also known as an H II region. This nebula is significantly larger than the Orion Nebula, which is one of the most well-known H II regions in our own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-amount-of-dark-matter-may-be-missing-from-the-milky-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way galaxy</a>.&nbsp;



NGC 604 spans about 1,500 light-years across, making it one of the largest H II regions in the Local Group of galaxies. This group includes the Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy, and about 54 other smaller galaxies. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ngc-604-starburst-phenomenon">NGC 604 starburst phenomenon </h2>



Within NGC 604, there are hundreds of young, hot, massive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stars-at-the-edge-of-our-milky-way-galaxy-travel-more-slowly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a>. These stars have ionized the surrounding gas, causing it to glow and creating the nebula. The region is a prime example of a starburst phenomenon, where stars form at a much higher rate than in typical galactic conditions.



“The bright orange streaks in this image signify the presence of carbon-based molecules known as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, or PAHs," explained ESA.



"As you travel further from the immediate cavities of dust where the star is forming, the deeper red signifies molecular hydrogen. This cooler gas is a prime environment for star formation. Ionized hydrogen from ultraviolet radiation appears as a white and blue ghostly glow."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-star-formation">More about star formation </h2>



Star formation is crucial for the evolution of galaxies and the synthesis of heavy elements. In the cores of stars, elements heavier than helium are created.



The elements are spread throughout the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-stars-shakti-shiva-shaped-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> when stars reach the end of their lives and expel their material - either gently through winds or violently via supernova explosions. This enriching process allows for the formation of new stars and planets, and ultimately, the potential for life.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Cloud collapse</h3>



The process begins when part of a molecular cloud becomes unstable and starts to collapse under its own gravity. This can be triggered by events like shock waves from nearby <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernovae</a>, galactic collisions, or the influence of other massive stars.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Formation of a protostar</h3>



As the cloud collapses, it fragments into smaller clumps. Each clump will eventually form one or more stars. 



The material within these clumps continues to fall inward, heating up as it does so, eventually forming a warm core called a protostar. At this stage, the protostar is not yet hot enough for nuclear fusion (the process that powers stars) to occur.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Accretion disk</h3>



Around the protostar, material from the surrounding cloud continues to fall inward, forming a rotating disk. This material slowly accretes onto the protostar, increasing its mass.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Nuclear fusion begins</h3>



Once the core of the protostar reaches a high enough temperature and pressure, hydrogen atoms begin to fuse into helium, releasing energy in the process. This marks the transition from a protostar to a main sequence star, like our sun.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Main sequence and beyond</h3>



The star will spend the majority of its life in the main sequence stage, where it balances the gravitational forces trying to collapse it and the outward pressure from nuclear fusion. 



Eventually, the star will exhaust its hydrogen fuel. Its subsequent evolution will depend on its initial mass, leading to various end stages such as red giants, supernovae, neutron stars, or black holes.



Image Credit: NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope



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Young, massive stars in the Triangulum Galaxy

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features the Messak Settafet, a rocky plateau located in the central Sahara Desert. It is part of the greater Messak Plateau, which stretches between the Erg Uan Kasa and the Murzuq Sand Sea.&nbsp;



The plateau's surface is characterized by blackened sandstone, sculpted by thousands of years of wind erosion. This dark patina, often referred to as "desert varnish," adds to its distinctive appearance. The region is starkly beautiful but harsh, with extreme temperatures and minimal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/even-desert-plants-are-not-immune-to-climate-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vegetation</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-image-of-the-messak-settafet">Image of the Messak Settafet</h2>



“Towering over the desert in southwestern Libya, the Messak Settafet plateau resembles the wall of a giant fortress, with its dark, erosion-resistant sandstone separating the Ubari Sand Sea to the north and the Marzūq Sand Sea to the south,” noted NASA.



“The large outcrop of Cretaceous rock features a sharp escarpment on its north side. The cliff, some 300 meters (1,000 feet) high in places, is lined with a thin dark shadow.”&nbsp;



“Dark debris from rockfalls is visible to the north. Note that an optical illusion called relief inversion can make high-elevation areas appear low and vice versa when shadows appear on the northern side of a feature.”



Archaeological significance of the plateau&nbsp;



Messak Settafet is often referred to as the "land of stone tools" because it is one of the world's largest sites for prehistoric tools.&nbsp;



The area is littered with countless <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fstone-tool-discovery-challenges-entire-theory-of-human-evolution%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stone tools</a> and artifacts dating back to various prehistoric periods, including the Acheulean and Neolithic. These tools offer insights into early human technology and adaptation to desert environments.



“Signs of ancient tool making cover much of the plateau’s surface,” said <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>. “According to one archaeological survey, people discarded so many stone tools and rock fragments on the plateau over hundreds of thousands of years that roughly 75 artifacts per square meter now carpet the surface.” 



“That makes this one of the earliest known examples of hominins modifying an entire landscape, according to the University of Cambridge archaeologists who conducted the survey.”



“Other signs of ancient activity include the bright spots that dot the image. These areas were likely quarrying pits where people dug up rocks and crafted them into tools, the archaeologists reported.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rock-art-on-the-plateau-nbsp">Rock art on the plateau&nbsp;</h2>



The plateau is home to numerous petroglyphs and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/negev-petroglyphs-ancient-art-rock-carvings-face-erosion-fungi-lichens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carvings</a>. These engravings depict animals, humans, and symbolic designs, providing valuable clues about the lives, beliefs, and environments of the region's ancient inhabitants. 



“For instance, Wadi Mathendous, a prehistoric archaeological site located in the southern part of the plateau, contains engravings of rhinoceroses, crocodiles, hippopotamuses, fighting cats, giraffes, long-horned buffaloes, and elephants. The art is thought to be about 8,000 years old,” said NASA.



Some of the animals depicted, such as giraffes and elephants, indicate that the Sahara was once a <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fa-lush-green-sahara-desert-helped-early-humans-migrate-out-of-africa%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">much wetter</a> and more hospitable environment.



Cultural significance of the Messak Settafet



Messak Settafet forms part of the Rock-Art Sites of Tadrart Acacus, a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1985. This designation highlights the area's importance for understanding early human culture and environmental changes in the Sahara.



The plateau has been a critical area for studying the migration and adaptation of early humans. Its archaeological richness offers a glimpse into how humans thrived in this region during periods when the climate was wetter.



“Although the plateau now receives less than 0.4 inches of rain annually, clues in the landscape make clear it was once much wetter,” noted NASA.



“Deeply incised dried stream valleys, or wadis, crisscross the plateau, indicating significant past water flow. The small, bright features scattered across the plateau are sand and silt deposits left where water once pooled.”



The Messak Settafet, like many remote <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sahara-desert-dust-storms-carry-harmful-bacteria-and-fungi-around-the-globe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">desert</a> regions, faces challenges such as erosion, vandalism of ancient rock art, and the potential impacts of development. Efforts to preserve its archaeological treasures are vital for protecting its cultural and scientific significance.



The image was captured November 17, 2024 by the Operational Land Imager-2 (OLI-2) on Landsat 9 on&nbsp;



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



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Messak Settafet plateau in the Sahara Desert

Today’s Image of the Day comes thanks to the <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> and features a look at sunset at the International Space Station.

The photo was taken by astronauts over the Indian Ocean and shows a unique view of the different layers of the Earth’s atmosphere. 

The orange and yellow layers represent the troposphere, which stretches from the Earth’s surface to 6 - 20 kilometers high. 

The pink and white layers represent the lower stratosphere, which stretches up to 50 kilometers above the Earth’s surface and usually contains very few <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/glowing-clouds-virginia-skies/">clouds</a>.

-

By <a href="mailto:rarnold@earth.com">Rory Arnold</a>, <a href="http://earth.com/staff">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=44267&amp;eocn=image&amp;eoci=related_image">NASA Earth Observatory</a>

Sunset at the International Space Station

In November 2020, a lonely buoy bobbing off the coast of British Columbia had quite the thrill ride when it was lifted sky-high by a gigantic 58-foot wave known as the Ucluelet wave. 



This monstrous wall of water, spanning the height of a four-story building, holds the record for the most extreme rogue wave ever recorded.



Intriguingly, this is an event that statisticians would tell you only happens once every 1,300 years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rogue-waves-from-myth-to-reality">Rogue waves: From myth to reality</h2>



Rogue waves&nbsp;are unusually large and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-waves-can-get-much-bigger-taller-than-we-ever-imagined/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unexpected ocean waves</a>, often two to three times taller than surrounding waves. They appear suddenly, last briefly, and can occur even in calm seas. 



These immensely powerful waves are capable of damaging ships, oil rigs, and coastal structures. Rogue waves, for the longest time, were nothing more than a seafarer's tall tale.



That was until 1995, when a freak wave with a height of 85 feet - now known as the Draupner wave - crashed into an oil-drilling platform off the coast of Norway. 



This monstrous wave became the first scientific evidence that rogue waves were more than just fiction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-ucluelet-wave">Understanding the Ucluelet wave</h2>



The Draupner wave towered over its neighbors at a staggering 85 feet, as the surrounding waves were 39 feet tall. In contrast, the Ucluelet wave off Vancouver Island was almost three times the height of its surrounding waves.



"Proportionally, the Ucluelet wave is likely the most extreme rogue wave ever recorded," noted physicist Johannes Gemmrich from the <a href="https://www.uvic.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Victoria</a>. Such a remarkable size difference has researchers scratching their heads about how these rogue waves form.



The buoy that captured data from the Ucluelet wave was one of many deployed by MarineLabs. Their mission is to gather more information about the deep-sea hazards that can wreak havoc on marine operations, wind farms, oil rigs, and potentially even beachgoers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-perils-of-rogue-waves">Perils of rogue waves</h2>



While neither the Ucluelet nor Draupner waves caused any significant damage, the history books are full of tales of rogue waves causing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/collapse-of-main-atlantic-ocean-circulaton-current-amoc-is-already-happening/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">destruction</a>. 



It has even been speculated that several ships which vanished in the 1970s could have been taken down by rogue waves.



With a predicted increase in wave heights in the North Pacific due to climate change, the Ucluelet wave's record might not stand for long.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marine-safety-a-constant-endeavor">Marine safety: A constant endeavor</h2>



"Capturing this once-in-a-millennium wave, right in our backyard, is a thrilling indicator of the power of coastal intelligence to transform marine safety," stated MarineLabs CEO Scott Beatty.



The push for improved safety and decision-making in marine operations and coastal communities is an ongoing one.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antarctica-and-rogue-waves-mystery">Antarctica and rogue waves mystery</h2>



An expedition by scientists from the <a href="https://www.unimelb.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Melbourne</a> to the waters around Antarctica has uncovered more about the formation of rogue waves. Their research has found that wind plays a significant role in the formation of these oceanic giants.



The team, led by Professor Alessandro Toffoli, took to the Antarctic waters in 2017, armed with state-of-the-art technology. 



With stereo cameras mounted on the South African icebreaker SA Agulhas II, they captured unprecedented insights into rogue waves. Their three-dimensional imaging of the ocean's surface provided unique insights into the dynamics of rogue waves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-role-of-wind">Critical role of wind</h2>



The observations revealed that rogue waves arise during the "young" stage of waves when they are most receptive to the wind.



"The wind creates a chaotic situation where waves of different dimensions and directions coexist," explained Professor Toffoli.



Wind causes young waves to grow higher, longer and faster. During this self-amplification, a wave grows disproportionately at the expense of its neighbors." 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-call-for-better-predictive-tools">Call for better predictive tools</h2>



The research in the choppy seas of Antarctica has emphasized the need to integrate wind dynamics into predictive models for rogue wave forecasting.



Advancing our knowledge of rogue waves and their connection to wind dynamics opens up a world of possibilities for improving predictive tools in ocean safety. 



By incorporating wind data into forecasting models, we can enhance our ability to anticipate and prepare for these formidable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unprecedented-heat-is-popping-up-in-hotspots-across-the-globe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural phenomena</a>. 



This integration will not only benefit sailors and maritime industries but also enable early warnings for coastal communities, enhancing overall safety and resilience in the face of unpredictable ocean conditions. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-05671-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Most extreme 'rogue wave' recorded in the Pacific Ocean

In November 2020, a lonely buoy bobbing off the coast...

Physicists continue to grapple with the mystery of dark matter, the elusive substance that makes up approximately 80% of the matter in the universe but has defied detection.&nbsp;



Now, a team of researchers has proposed an innovative model suggesting that dark matter might have originated before the Big Bang, during an inflationary phase when the universe underwent rapid exponential expansion. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-inflation-and-dark-matter-formation">The role of inflation and dark matter formation</h2>



Inflation, a concept developed about 45 years ago, describes a brief period in the early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-study-claims-our-universe-is-27-billion-years-old-double-the-current-age-estimate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universe</a> when its size expanded exponentially by a factor of about about 1026 in 10-36 seconds.&nbsp;



This rapid expansion, theorized to have occurred before the conventional Big Bang, provides explanations for several cosmological puzzles, including the flatness and homogeneity of the universe and the origins of its structure.&nbsp;



Despite being widely accepted among cosmologists, the mechanism driving inflation remains unknown. It is attributed to a hypothetical field called the inflaton, which spans all of spacetime.



During inflation, the universe exists in a state of supercooled expansion, with temperatures dropping drastically. When inflation ends, a process called reheating occurs, restoring the universe to pre-inflation temperatures and initiating the production of standard particles, including photons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-traditional-theories-of-dark-matter-formation">Traditional theories of dark matter formation</h2>



Existing theories propose that dark matter emerges through interactions with a thermal bath of particles, with its abundance determined by either a "freeze-out" or "freeze-in" mechanism.&nbsp;



In the freeze-out model, dark matter remains in equilibrium with the thermal bath during the earliest moments, while in the freeze-in model, dark matter never reaches equilibrium due to suppressed interactions.



In ultraviolet (UV) freeze-in, for instance, the temperature of the thermal bath is always lower than the masses of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-entanglement-spooky-action-at-a-distance-persists-between-top-quarks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">particles</a> connecting dark matter to the Standard Model of particle physics.&nbsp;



This scenario relies on quantum field interactions, where dark matter is produced under specific energy conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-novel-mechanism-dark-matter-during-inflation">A novel mechanism: Dark matter during inflation</h2>



The new model, dubbed WIFI (Warm Inflation via ultraviolet Freeze-In), introduces an alternative perspective. It posits that dark matter was created during the inflationary phase through rare interactions in a hot, energetic environment.&nbsp;



Unlike traditional models, which assume anything produced during inflation is diluted away by the universe's rapid expansion, the WIFI model suggests that dark matter formed during this period could survive and account for the dark matter observed today.



“The thing that’s unique to our model is that dark matter is successfully produced during inflation,” explained Katherine Freese, lead author and director of the <a href="https://weinberg.utexas.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Weinberg Institute for Theoretical Physics</a> at The University of Texas at Austin.&nbsp;



“In most other models, anything that is created during inflation is then ‘inflated away’ by the exponential expansion of the universe, to the point where there is essentially nothing left.”



In this scenario, the inflaton field driving inflation loses some of its energy to radiation, which then produces dark matter particles through the freeze-in mechanism.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-the-big-bang-singularity">Beyond the Big Bang singularity</h2>



This model aligns with the idea that inflation predates the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/if-the-big-bang-theory-is-correct-what-exactly-happened/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Big Bang</a>, challenging the notion of a singularity with infinite density and curvature. Instead, the universe is thought to have had a small but finite size post-inflation, approximately 10-26 meters in diameter.&nbsp;



From there, the standard processes of radiation and particle production unfolded, leading to the universe as we know it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-validation-and-implications">Future validation and implications</h2>



The WIFI model is not yet confirmed by observations, but it could be tested within the next decade through experiments studying the cosmic microwave background (CMB).&nbsp;



Warm inflation, a key component of the WIFI model, will be a focus of these studies. If warm inflation is verified, it would bolster the model’s credibility and open avenues for understanding other particles and processes in the early universe.



“In our study, we focused on the production of dark matter, but WIFI suggests a broader applicability, such as the production of other particles that could play a crucial role in the early universe's evolution,” said co-author Barmak Shams Es Haghi. “This highlights new opportunities for exploration in future research.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-chapter-in-dark-matter-research">A new chapter in dark matter research</h2>



While the origins of dark matter remain an enigma, the WIFI model offers an exciting framework that ties its formation to one of the universe’s earliest and most dramatic phases.&nbsp;



By exploring this unconventional path, researchers hope to uncover not only the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-true-nature-of-dark-matter-may-be-revealed-in-a-supernova/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nature</a> of dark matter but also new insights into the universe’s infancy and evolution.



Image Credit: Geralt on Pixabay.



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Dark matter formation may have occurred before the Big Bang

Physicists continue to grapple with the mystery of dark matter,...

A cascading chain reaction of events often follows when a tipping point is crossed in Earth’s climate system. Much like toppling dominoes, these events can lead to accelerated warming, rising sea levels, and more extreme weather patterns.&nbsp;



While the environmental consequences of such tipping points have been widely studied, new research sheds light on a lesser-explored aspect: the financial and logistical costs of reversing these changes.



A recent study published in <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41612-024-00768-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">npj Climate and Atmospheric Science</a> reveals that the cost of undoing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-still-prevent-critical-climate-tipping-points/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate tipping point</a> damage surges dramatically once these thresholds are breached.&nbsp;



For example, restoring melted polar sea ice becomes nearly four times more expensive after a tipping point is crossed compared to preventive action beforehand. This marks the first time researchers have quantified the economic implications of pre- and post-threshold interventions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dangers-of-climate-tipping-points">Dangers of climate tipping points</h2>



Climate tipping points represent critical thresholds in Earth’s systems. When crossed, they lead to significant, often irreversible changes.&nbsp;



Common examples include <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildly-unexpected-consequences-polar-ice-melt-earth-rotation-spin-day-length/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">melting polar ice sheets</a>, the die-off of tropical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reefs-may-be-more-resilient-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coral reefs</a>, and collapsing ecosystems. These events can trigger catastrophic effects like coastal flooding, biodiversity loss, and disrupted weather patterns.



Despite widespread understanding of their dangers, the costs of addressing tipping points have remained elusive. 



How much effort would be required to halt the damage just before a tipping point? And how would those costs change after crossing the threshold?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-polar-sea-ice">Polar sea ice</h2>



In the case of polar sea ice, reversing the damage means halting the melting process and reestablishing ice cover. 



However, as lead author and mathematician Parvathi Kooloth explains, waiting to intervene until after a tipping point significantly increases the effort required.



“You either shoulder the cost now, just before the threshold is crossed, or you wait,” said Kooloth. “And if you wait, the degree of intervention needed to bring the climate system back to where it was rises steeply. Corrective action after the fact is much more costly and intrusive than preventive action.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-behind-tipping-points">The science behind tipping points</h2>



Each tipping point is unique, shaped by factors like ocean heat transport or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cloud-engineering-can-temporarily-cool-our-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cloud</a> cover. These characteristics influence the trajectory of post-tipping changes and determine the specifics of any potential intervention strategy.&nbsp;



Yet, beneath this complexity lies a universal equation describing the fundamental nature of tipping points.



By employing simplified mathematical models, researchers can study these shared behaviors, offering insights that may one day enable early warnings for impending tipping points.



“It’s actually really hard to pin a tipping point down,” Kooloth said. “We know a great deal about the climate system today. But even now, we’re never really sure how far or close we are to a tipping point. Could we one day use observable precursors to provide early warning? My hope is that we can.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-overshoot-window-a-brief-reprieve">The overshoot window: A brief reprieve?</h2>



The study also uncovered a phenomenon called the “overshoot window,” a period just after a tipping point is crossed where intervention costs rise only gradually. During this time, nearby systems - such as ocean waters - may take longer to heat up, delaying rapid changes.



While this offers a fleeting opportunity to mitigate damage, it comes with a caveat: the longer we wait within this window, the steeper the eventual cost of intervention becomes.



“This is no free lunch,” Kooloth warns. “The extra leeway comes with an even steeper increase in intervention costs once the overshoot window is fully crossed.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-irreversible-nature-of-climate-effects">Irreversible nature of climate effects</h2>



Not all consequences of crossing tipping points are reversible. Wildlife and ecosystems lost to prolonged environmental shifts may never recover, and certain changes could demand more effort to undo than what caused them initially. This asymmetry complicates restoration efforts.



“The path forward and the path backward are often not the same,” Kooloth explained. “Imagine that we go down a high-<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-carbon-dioxide-emissions-hit-a-record-high-in-2023/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emissions</a> pathway, where the planet warms enough to melt all our sea ice by the end of the century.”&nbsp;



“If we arrive in the year 2100 with no sea ice, it may not be sufficient to bring the ice back if we dialed our emissions down to the levels we’re emitting now in 2024, when we still have some ice left.”



“We may need to dial emissions down much further, to levels predating 2024 - that asymmetry is important for us to consider as we choose our path forward.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proactive-measures-to-address-tipping-points">Proactive measures to address tipping points</h2>



The findings underscore the urgent need for proactive measures to address climate tipping points.&nbsp;



Waiting until these thresholds are crossed not only deepens environmental damage but also multiplies the costs and challenges of intervention.&nbsp;



By acting now, policymakers and global leaders can minimize the long-term repercussions of climate change and avoid plunging Earth into a state of irreversible decline.



Image Credit: CC0 Public Domain



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Costs of reversing climate change multiply after a tipping point

A cascading chain reaction of events often follows when a...

A significant new scientific report outlines an urgent need for a fundamental shift in how the world cultivates food and manages land to prevent irreversible damage to Earth's capacity to support both human life and environmental health.



Produced under the leadership of Dr. Johan Rockström at the <a href="https://www.pik-potsdam.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research</a> (PIK) in collaboration with the <a href="https://enb.iisd.org/negotiations/un-convention-combat-desertification-unccd?gad_source=1&amp;gclid=CjwKCAiA0rW6BhAcEiwAQH28Il4vMEVRMJVEjS8qAPM2e7KM4NW4QKeyjQK-tl5ZsiyXsaROk_egURoCWMMQAvD_BwE" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UN Convention to Combat Desertification </a>(UNCCD), the report is being launched as nearly 200 UNCCD member states begin their COP 16 summit in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-land-in-earth-s-stability">The role of land in Earth's stability</h2>



Land serves as the foundation of Earth's stability by regulating climate, preserving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>, and maintaining freshwater systems. It provides essential resources, including food, water, and raw materials, as detailed in the Stepping back from the precipice: Transforming land management to stay within planetary boundaries report.&nbsp;



Drawing on roughly 350 information sources, the report examines land degradation and opportunities for action from a planetary boundaries perspective.



However, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-deforestation-crisis-how-can-we-stop-massive-forest-losses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deforestation</a>, urbanization, and unsustainable farming practices are causing global land degradation at an unprecedented scale, threatening various Earth system components and human survival itself.&nbsp;



The deterioration of forests and soils undermines Earth's capacity to cope with climate and biodiversity crises, which in turn accelerate land degradation in a harmful cycle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alarming-extent-of-land-degradation">Alarming extent of land degradation</h2>



“If we fail to acknowledge the pivotal role of land and take appropriate action, the consequences will ripple through every aspect of life and extend well into the future, intensifying difficulties for future generations,” said UNCCD Executive Secretary Ibrahim Thiaw.



Currently, land degradation disrupts food security, drives migration, and fuels conflicts. The global area affected by land degradation - about 15 million square kilometers, which is more than the entire continent of Antarctica and nearly the size of Russia - is expanding each year by about a million square kilometers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planetary-boundaries-and-land-use">Planetary boundaries and land use</h2>



The report situates both problems and potential solutions related to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/using-more-land-agricultural-expansion-will-harm-climate-and-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">land use</a> within the scientific framework of planetary boundaries, which has quickly gained policy relevance since its emergence 15 years ago.



The planetary boundaries include nine critical thresholds which are essential for maintaining our planet’s stability.&nbsp;



How humanity uses and abuses land directly impacts seven of these boundaries, including climate change, species loss and ecosystem viability, freshwater systems, and the circulation of elements such as nitrogen and phosphorus. Moreover, change in land use is also an important planetary boundary.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-transformative-action-or-irreversible-change">Transformative action or irreversible change</h2>



Alarmingly, six boundaries have already been breached until now, and two more are close to exceed their thresholds: ocean acidification and the concentration of aerosols in the atmosphere. Among the planetary boundaries, only stratospheric ozone - the object of a seminal 1989 treaty to reduce ozone-depleting chemicals - remains within its “safe operating space.”



“The aim of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-have-exceeded-six-of-nine-planetary-boundaries/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planetary boundaries</a> framework is to provide a measure for achieving human wellbeing within Earth’s ecological limits,” said Johan Rockström, lead author of the important study introducing the concept in 2009.&nbsp;



“We stand at a precipice and must decide whether to step back and take transformative action, or continue on a path of irreversible environmental change.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decline-of-forests-and-ecosystem-services">Decline of forests and ecosystem services</h2>



The benchmark for land use is the extent of the world's forests before significant human impact.&nbsp;



Maintaining more than 75% of original forest cover keeps us within safe bounds, but forest cover has already been reduced to only 60% of its original area, according to a recent update of the planetary boundaries framework by Katherine Richardson and colleagues.



Until recently, land ecosystems absorbed nearly one-third of human-caused CO₂ emissions, even as these emissions increased by half. Yet, during the last decade, deforestation and climate change have reduced the capacity of trees and soil to absorb excess CO₂ by 20%.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unsustainable-agriculture-and-its-consequences">Unsustainable agriculture and its consequences</h2>



Conventional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-and-agriculture-are-locked-in-a-destructive-feedback-loop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">agriculture</a> is the leading cause of land degradation, contributing to deforestation, soil erosion, and pollution. Unsustainable irrigation practices deplete freshwater resources, while excessive use of nitrogen- and phosphorus-based fertilizers destabilizes entire ecosystems.



Degraded soils result in lower crop yields and reduced nutritional quality, directly impacting the livelihoods of vulnerable populations. Secondary effects include increased dependency on chemical inputs and expanded land conversion for farming.



Today, land degradation hotspots stem from intensive agricultural production and high irrigation demands, particularly in dry regions such as South Asia, northern China, the US High Plains, California, and the Mediterranean.



At the same time, climate change (which has long since breached its own planetary boundary) accelerates land degradation through phenomena such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-tens-of-millions-of-people-love-watching-videos-of-extreme-weather-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme weather events</a>, prolonged droughts, and intensified floods.&nbsp;



Moreover, melting mountain glaciers and disrupted water cycles heighten vulnerabilities, particularly in arid regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-impact-of-land-degradation">Human impact of land degradation</h2>



Rapid urbanization exacerbates these challenges, contributing to habitat destruction, pollution, and biodiversity loss.&nbsp;



The impacts of land degradation disproportionately affect tropical and low-income countries due to lower resilience and concentrated impacts in tropical and arid regions.&nbsp;



Women, youth, Indigenous peoples, and local communities bear the brunt of environmental decline. For instance, women struggle with increased workloads and health risks, while children suffer from malnutrition and major educational setbacks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-government-challenges-and-sustainability-goals-nbsp">Government challenges and sustainability goals&nbsp;</h2>



Weak governance and corruption worsen these challenges. Corruption, for instance, fosters illegal deforestation and exploitation of resources, thus perpetuating cycles of degradation and inequality.&nbsp;



According to the Prindex initiative, almost one billion people lack secure land tenure, with the highest concentrations in North Africa (28%), sub-Saharan Africa (26%), and South and Southeast Asia. The continuous fear of losing one's home or land frequently undermines efforts to promote sustainable practices.



Agricultural subsidies often incentivize harmful practices, leading to overuse of water and biogeochemical imbalances. Aligning these subsidies with sustainability goals is crucial for effective land management.&nbsp;



From 2013 to 2018, over half a trillion dollars were spent on such subsidies in 88 countries, according to a report from 2021. From these, almost 90% went to inefficient, unfair practices that harmed the environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reversing-soil-and-land-degradation-nbsp">Reversing soil and land degradation&nbsp;</h2>



Transformative action to combat land degradation is essential to return to the safe operating space for land-based planetary boundaries. Just as the planetary boundaries are strongly interconnected, so must be the actions taken to prevent or slow their transgression.



Principles of fairness and justice are highly important when designing and implementing transformative actions to stop land degradation, making sure that benefits and burdens are equitably distributed.



Reforming agriculture, protecting soil, managing water resources, implementing digital solutions, creating sustainable or “green” supply chains, ensuring equitable land governance, and protecting and restoring forests, grasslands, savannas, and peatlands are crucial for halting and reversing land and soil degradation.



Regenerative agriculture is defined by its outcomes, such as improved soil health, carbon sequestration, and biodiversity enhancement. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-food-systems-are-gaining-momentum/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Agroecology</a> emphasizes holistic land management, integrating forestry, crops, and livestock management.



Practices such as woodland regeneration, no-till farming, nutrient management, improved grazing, water conservation and harvesting, efficient irrigation, intercropping, use of organic fertilizers, and enhanced use of compost and biochar can all increase soil carbon and boost crop yields.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-technological-innovations-and-ecosystem-protection">Technological innovations and ecosystem protection</h2>



Savannas are under extreme threat from human-caused land degradation, yet are essential for human and ecological wellbeing.&nbsp;



A major store of biodiversity and carbon, covering 20% of our planet’s land surface, savannas are increasingly being lost to cropland expansion and misguided afforestation practices.



The current rate of groundwater extraction exceeds replenishment in 47% of global aquifers, making more efficient irrigation crucial to reduce agricultural freshwater use.



According to the experts, the water sector must continue to shift from “grey” infrastructure (dams, reservoirs, channels, and treatment plants) to so-called “green” infrastructure, including practices such as reforestation, floodplain restoration, forest conservation, or recharging aquifers.



More efficient delivery of chemical fertilizers is also essential: currently, only 46% of nitrogen and 66% of phosphorus applied as fertilizer is absorbed by crops. The remainder runs off into freshwater bodies and coastal areas, with dire consequences for the environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-technologies-to-improve-land-use">New technologies to improve land use</h2>



Novel technologies coupled with big data and artificial intelligence have enabled innovations such as precision farming, remote sensing, and drones which can detect and combat land degradation in real time.&nbsp;



Benefits also come from the precise application of water, nutrients, and pesticides, along with early pest and disease detection.



For instance, <a href="https://plantix.net/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plantix</a>, a free app available in 18 languages, can detect almost 700 pests and diseases on over 80 different crops.&nbsp;



Finally, improved solar cookstoves can offer households additional income sources and improve livelihoods while reducing the current reliance on forest resources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preventing-further-damage-to-earth">Preventing further damage to Earth</h2>



Stronger regulatory measures, enhanced land governance, formalizing land tenure rights, and greater corporate accountability regarding environmental impacts are essential steps toward sustainable land management.



Although numerous multilateral agreements aimed at transforming land-use systems are in place, they have largely fallen short of their goals.&nbsp;



For instance, the Glasgow Declaration, signed by 145 countries during the 2021 climate summit, committed to halting deforestation and land degradation by 2030. Yet, deforestation rates have continued to rise since its adoption.



Safeguarding undisturbed peatlands and restoring 60% of those already degraded could significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions, transforming these areas into net carbon sinks by the end of the century.&nbsp;



Currently, degraded peatlands contribute 4% to 5% of global greenhouse gas emissions, according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).



The report, which can be found <a href="https://publications.pik-potsdam.de/rest/items/item_30631_2/component/file_30742/content" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">here</a>, underscores that humanity's future - and the health of the planet - relies on immediate, collaborative action to reform how land is utilized and managed.



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Land degradation severely threatens planetary boundaries

A significant new scientific report outlines an urgent need for...

A severe storm described as a “once-in-a-decade” event recently devastated the Pacific Northwest, causing widespread power outages, significant damage, and resulting in at least two deaths.&nbsp;



Data indicates that such storms - referred to as bomb cyclones - are becoming more frequent, raising questions about the role of climate change as a potential driver.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-powerful-low-pressure-system-nbsp">A powerful low-pressure system&nbsp;</h2>



Frightening satellite images captured a powerful low-pressure system swirling approximately 300 miles off the coast of Washington.&nbsp;



Known as a “<a href="https://www.earth.com/image/bomb-cyclone-rapidly-intensified-in-the-pacific-northwest/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bomb cyclone</a>” due to the extremely rapid drop in atmospheric pressure that intensifies its strength, the system lashed Northern California, the Pacific Northwest, and British Columbia with hurricane-force winds and heavy rain.&nbsp;



Tens of thousands of homes lost power, trees were uprooted, and at least two people lost their lives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-a-bomb-cyclone">What is a bomb cyclone?</h2>



The term “bomb cyclone” originated as slang to describe an extratropical cyclone that strengthens quickly, similar to a rapidly intensifying hurricane.&nbsp;



“This term has been in use for about 80 years but was popularized and formalized 40 years ago when it entered the published literature,” said Brian McNoldy, a senior research associate at the <a href="https://www.earth.miami.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine, Atmospheric, and Earth Science</a>.



Authors of the paper "Synoptic-Dynamic Climatology of the 'Bomb'," published in the October 1980 issue of the American Meteorological Society's <a href="https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/mwre/108/10/1520-0493_1980_108_1589_sdcot_2_0_co_2.xml" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monthly Weather Review</a>, labeled the weather phenomenon a bomb because it develops “with a ferocity we rarely, if ever, see over land.”



“Another term used to describe this is explosive cyclogenesis - rapid formation and development of a cyclone,” McNoldy explained. “To officially qualify as a bomb, the central pressure of the low must fall at least 24 millibars in 24 hours at 60 degrees latitude, or 14 millibars in 24 hours at 30 degrees latitude.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-differences-in-bomb-cyclones-and-hurricanes">Differences in bomb cyclones and hurricanes</h2>



Although satellite imagery of the recent bomb cyclone, captured by the <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a>'s GOES 18 satellite, resembles that of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-amplified-hurricane-strength/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hurricane</a>, the two systems differ structurally.



Hurricanes are vertically upright, with their structure extending uniformly from the ocean surface to the upper atmosphere. This vertical alignment allows for efficient wind flow and intensification.



“But a midlatitude cyclone is actually tilted in the vertical,” explained Ben Kirtman, a professor of atmospheric sciences and the William R. Middelthon III Endowed Chair of Earth Sciences at the Rosenstiel School.



“What's happening in the upper atmosphere sits to the west with what's happening at the surface, and it's that vertical tilt that is so critical for the development of the cyclone.”&nbsp;



“And so, the wind shear is a critical source of energy in the development of the cyclone as opposed to hurricanes, where it's vertically stacked, and it's the warm water below that is the source of energy for hurricanes.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-common-feature-of-winter-weather">A common feature of winter weather</h2>



Bomb cyclones are winter storms that typically occur from October through March. They also form off the U.S. East Coast, where New England's notorious nor'easters often qualify as bomb cyclones.



The recent powerful bomb cyclone that struck the Pacific Northwest eventually combined with an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/atmospheric-rivers-are-shifting-with-global-climate-impacts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmospheric river</a> - a long, narrow band of water vapor in the atmosphere that transports moisture from tropical regions to cooler areas. Meteorologists are calling it a “once-in-a-decade” storm.



Data from the <a href="https://www.weather.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Weather Service</a> shows that such weather systems are becoming more common, especially along the East Coast. Between 1980 and 2020, the number of bomb cyclones in the Atlantic basin increased by approximately 40 percent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-bomb-cyclones">Climate change and bomb cyclones </h2>



The question arises: is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-earth-energy-imbalance-temperature-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> driving the increase in bomb cyclones? The answer is complex. Kirtman noted that it's probably connected to warmer ocean temperatures.



He explained that as the climate system warms, the higher latitudes warm faster than the lower latitudes, and the energy for the system of midlatitude cyclones is that contrast between north and south.&nbsp;



“And so, your first knee-jerk reaction would be, 'If it's warming in the higher latitudes more than the southern latitudes, there's less energy for these cyclones, less contrast in temperature.' But that's not the whole story,” said Kirtman.



“The challenge is what happens when you weaken that polar-equator temperature gradient - you get a wavier pattern in the midlatitude wind jet stream. And what that means is it's able to suck down cold air because it's wavier; we're getting these bigger dips.”



“So, you're getting cold air that's penetrating further south, and that sets off these midlatitude cyclones. It's that cold air injection that sets them off. And so, we can get an increase in these systems.”



Image Credit: Pixabay/CC0 Public Domain



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'Bomb cyclones' are becoming frequent extreme weather events

A severe storm described as a “once-in-a-decade” event recently devastated...

A recent discovery in a quarry near Bristol has sparked intense debate and controversy in the scientific community. Unearthed from Triassic-aged rocks, a tiny fossil skeleton has been identified as&nbsp;Cryptovaranoides microlanius, a modern-type lizard that died at least 205 million years ago.



This remarkable fossil is now the oldest lizard of its kind on record, which reframes our understanding of lizard evolution by pushing the origin of the Squamata group - which includes all lizards and snakes - back by 35 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-hidden-predator">A hidden predator</h2>



The original study, conducted by a team from the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, named the creature Cryptovaranoides microlanius. This translates to "hidden <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-lizard-day-2024-celebrating-our-scaly-companions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lizard</a>, small butcher," which is a nod to its sharp teeth that probably helped it tear its prey apart.



The research team was led by Dr. David Whiteside, Dr. Sofia Chambi-Trowell, and Professor Mike Benton. 



The experts identified key anatomical features of the skull and skeleton that placed the fossil firmly within the Squamata and close to the Anguimorpha group, which includes modern anguids and monitors.



"We knew our paper would be controversial. But we were confident that we had looked at every possible feature and compared it with everything we could," explained Dr. Whiteside.



Their confidence was rooted in meticulous research, which included detailed examination of the fossil specimen and CT scans to analyze the intricate details of the skull and jaw.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controversy-around-the-lizard-fossil">Controversy around the lizard fossil</h2>



Despite their thorough investigation, the findings were greeted with skepticism.



In 2023, a rival team of researchers challenged the classification of Cryptovaranoides, suggesting it was not a lizard or even a lizard relative. 



Instead, they proposed that it belonged to the archosauromorph group, which includes crocodilians and dinosaurs. This claim surprised the original researchers.



"We were therefore surprised, perhaps even shocked, that in 2023 another team of academics suggested that Cryptovaranoides was not a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-lizard-faces-an-unexpected-threat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lizard</a> or even a lizard relative, but in fact an archosauromorph, more closely related to crocodilians and dinosaurs," said Professor Benton.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revisiting-the-lizard-fossil">Revisiting the lizard fossil</h2>



Determined to validate their findings, the Bristol team revisited the fossil and CT scan data. Their reassessment involved examining the original specimen alongside X-ray scans, which revealed details hidden within the rock. 



"We had the marvelous images from those CT scans as well as further access to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-sea-lizard-khinjaria-had-teeth-like-daggers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> which enabled us to check all their suggestions. We found that most of the concerns raised were wrong," noted Dr. Chambi-Trowell.



The team’s new analysis scrutinized the criticisms point by point. They provided detailed descriptions and supplementary evidence, including additional photographs and 3D images, to substantiate their claim.



"All the details of the skull, the jaws, the teeth, and the limb bones confirm that Cryptovaranoides is a lizard, not an archosauromorph," Professor Benton stated.



"In our new paper, we provide great detail of every criticism made and we provide more photographs of the specimen and 3D images from the scans, so everyone can check the detail."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-world-s-oldest-modern-type-lizard">World's oldest modern-type lizard</h2>



The team’s confidence was further bolstered by phylogenetic analysis, a method that codes hundreds of anatomical features of Cryptovaranoides and compares them with other modern and fossil lizards, as well as archosauromorphs. 



"The result of all this had to be tested by a phylogenetic analysis. This is where we code hundreds of anatomical features in Cryptovaranoides and other modern and fossil lizards, as well as various archosauromorphs," explained Dr. Whiteside about the rigorous testing process.



"We ran the analysis time after time, and it gave our original result, that the little Bristol reptile is indeed the world’s oldest modern-type lizard."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-discovery">Significance of the discovery</h2>



This discovery has far-reaching implications for our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-lizards-scuba-dive-by-using-air-bubbles-to-breathe-underwater/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reptile</a> evolution. 



Squamata, the group that includes all lizards and snakes, is one of the most diverse vertebrate groups today. Tracing its origins back 205 million years provides new insights into how modern reptiles evolved and adapted over millions of years.



Dr. Whiteside and his colleagues hope their findings will settle the debate and reaffirm the significance of Cryptovaranoides.



By pushing the timeline of Squamata’s origin further back, the discovery challenges existing models of reptilian evolution and highlights the importance of continued research and exploration in paleontology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-visual-evidence-in-the-lizard-fossil">Visual evidence in the lizard fossil</h2>



The fossil’s remarkable preservation has provided invaluable data. Detailed CT scans allowed the team to analyze internal structures and confirm its classification. 



One image, created by Dr. Chambi-Trowell, shows the inside of the skull and lower jaw on the right, juxtaposed with an exterior CT scan of the same bones on the left. These images reveal a level of detail crucial for accurate classification.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



While this lizard fossil discovery is remarkable, it opens new questions about the early evolution of reptiles. What other fossils might remain hidden in similar Triassic rocks? 



Could they reveal even older ancestors of Squamata? The Bristol team’s work underscores the value of re-examining existing specimens and using advanced technologies like CT scanning to unlock hidden details.



"The little Bristol reptile is a remarkable window into the past. It helps us understand the origins of one of the most successful vertebrate groups on Earth," said Dr. Whiteside.



"We look forward to more discoveries that will continue to illuminate the fascinating history of life on our planet."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.231874" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



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Fossil discovery shifts the origin of lizards back 35 million years

A recent discovery in a quarry near Bristol has sparked...

For decades, scientists have been grappling with what is considered to be the most fundamental question about the cosmos: How fast is our universe expanding? 



The rate of expansion influences everything from how galaxies form to how they might one day drift apart.



Determining the expansion rate of the universe, a number called the "Hubble constant," shapes our entire understanding of the cosmos, its age, and its ultimate fate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hubble-tension-expansion-conundrum">"Hubble tension" expansion conundrum</h2>



Unfortunately, though many brilliant minds have dedicated their lives to finding the answer to this riddle, all who have tried thus far have failed, running repeatedly into a brick wall that has come to be known as the "Hubble tension."



Adam Riess, a physicist at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins University</a> in Baltimore, has been at the forefront of this debate. "With measurement errors negated, what remains is the real and exciting possibility that we have misunderstood the universe," Riess admitted.



Riess, who won a Nobel Prize for discovering that the universe's expansion is accelerating due to dark energy, has been working tirelessly to resolve what's known as the Hubble Tension.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-hubble-constant-matters">Why the Hubble constant matters</h2>



But before diving deeper, let's consider why the expansion rate -- called the Hubble constant -- is so crucial. 



Named after Edwin Hubble, who first observed that galaxies are moving away from us, this constant helps us map out the history and future of everything we see in the night sky. 



Determining it with precision has been a major goal of astronomers for decades.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/hubble-constant_3-steps_illustration_nasa_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/hubble-constant_3-steps_illustration_nasa_1s.webp" alt="This illustration shows the three basic steps astronomers use to calculate how fast the universe expands over time, a value called the Hubble constant. All the steps involve building a strong &quot;cosmic distance ladder,&quot; by starting with measuring accurate distances to nearby galaxies and then moving to galaxies farther and farther away. Credit: NASA" class="wp-image-1951709"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This illustration shows the three basic steps astronomers use to calculate how fast the universe expands over time, a value called the Hubble constant. All the steps involve building a strong "cosmic distance ladder," by starting with measuring accurate distances to nearby galaxies and then moving to galaxies farther and farther away. Credit: NASA</figcaption></figure>



When the <a href="https://hubblesite.org/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hubble Space Telescope</a> was launched in 1990, one of its main objectives was to pin down the universe's expansion rate. 



Before Hubble, estimates of the universe's age ranged wildly from 10 to 20 billion years -- a huge uncertainty. 



Thanks to Hubble's observations of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/expansion-rate-of-the-universe-confirmed-by-jwst/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cepheid variable stars</a> -- stars that pulsate at regular intervals and serve as cosmic mileposts -- we now have a more precise age of about 13.8 billion years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-telescope-to-the-rescue">Webb telescope to the rescue?</h2>



Some scientists wondered if the discrepancies in measurements were due to errors in Hubble's data. Maybe, they thought, the way Hubble measured distances had some hidden flaws. 



Then came the James Webb Space Telescope (<a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Webb</a>), launched to great fanfare as the successor to Hubble. Webb's infrared observations of Cepheids matched Hubble's optical data perfectly. 



"Combining Webb and Hubble gives us the best of both worlds. We find that the Hubble measurements remain reliable as we climb farther along the cosmic distance ladder," Riess explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hubble-vs-webb-vs-expansion">Hubble vs. Webb vs. expansion</h2>



Despite the new data, the tension between measurements remains. The Hubble and Webb telescopes confirm one universe expansion rate, based on observations of the local universe.



Meanwhile, observations from the early universe, like those from the Planck satellite's mapping of the cosmic microwave background radiation, suggest another. 



This leaves cosmologists scratching their heads. Is there something about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/universe-expansion-rate-dark-energy-measured-11-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fabric of space</a> we don't yet understand? Does resolving this discrepancy require new physics, or is there another explanation?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brenda-frye-tackles-hubble-and-expansion">Brenda Frye tackles Hubble and expansion</h2>



In October 2024, <a href="https://blogs.nasa.gov/webb/2024/10/01/webb-researchers-discover-lensed-supernova-confirm-hubble-tension/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">as reported by NASA</a>, Brenda Frye from the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a> and an international team took a different approach. 



They used <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-telescope-finds-a-second-lensed-supernova-in-a-distant-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gravitationally lensed supernovae</a> to measure the Hubble constant -- a method independent of previous techniques. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/hubble-constant_galaxy-cluster-G165_supernova-H0pe_gravitational-lensing_jwst_UArizona_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/hubble-constant_galaxy-cluster-G165_supernova-H0pe_gravitational-lensing_jwst_UArizona_1s.webp" alt="NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope’s NIRCam (Near-Infrared Camera) image of the galaxy cluster PLCK G165.7+67.0, also known as G165, on the left shows the magnifying effect a foreground cluster can have on the distant universe beyond. The foreground cluster is 3.6 billion light-years away from Earth. The zoomed region on the right shows supernova H0pe triply imaged (labeled with white dashed circles) due to gravitational lensing. Credit: NASA, ESA, CSA, STScI, B. Frye (University of Arizona)" class="wp-image-1951711"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope’s NIRCam (Near-Infrared Camera) image of the galaxy cluster PLCK G165.7+67.0, also known as G165, on the left shows the magnifying effect a foreground cluster can have on the distant universe beyond. The foreground cluster is 3.6 billion light-years away from Earth. The zoomed region on the right shows supernova H0pe triply imaged (labeled with white dashed circles) due to gravitational lensing. Credit: NASA, ESA, CSA, STScI, B. Frye (University of Arizona)</figcaption></figure>



While observing a densely populated cluster of galaxies, they noticed something unusual. "What are those three dots that weren’t there before? Could that be a supernova?" the team wondered. 



It turned out to be a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-travels-back-in-time-to-better-understand-supernovae-science/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Type Ia supernova</a>, an explosion of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/white-dwarf-stars-may-be-billions-of-years-older-than-estimated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">white dwarf star</a>, magnified and split into multiple images by the gravitational lensing effect of the intervening galaxy cluster.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-gravitational-lensing">What is gravitational lensing?</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-carousel-lens-galaxy-alignment-reveals-dark-matter-secrets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gravitational lensing</a> is important to this experiment. The lens, consisting of a cluster of galaxies situated between the supernova and us, bends the supernova's light into multiple images. 



This effect not only magnifies the supernova but also allows scientists to measure the time delays between the images, providing another way to calculate the Hubble constant.



Their analyses confirmed that these dots corresponded to an exploding star with rare qualities. 



The team's work provided a Hubble constant value of 75.4 kilometers per second per megaparsec, plus 8.1 or minus 5.5. For context, one megaparsec is about 3.26 million light-years. 



"Our team’s results are impactful: The Hubble constant value matches other measurements in the local universe, and is somewhat in tension with values obtained when the universe was young," Frye concluded.



Another strikeout... add Brenda Frye to the long list of brilliant minds still probing the universe for an answer to Hubble tension.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-this-is-getting-sad-now-what">This is getting sad, now what?</h2>



So, where does this leave us? 



The Hubble Tension isn't going away. It might be telling us that there's new physics waiting to be discovered. 



Perhaps our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-energy-could-explain-the-rapid-expansion-of-the-early-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark energy</a>, dark matter, or other fundamental forces needs to be revised. 



"We need to find out if we are missing something on how to connect the beginning of the universe and the present day," Riess pointed out. 



It's possible that new theories or modifications to existing ones could bridge the gap.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shaking-things-up-with-new-theories">Shaking things up with new theories</h2>



Could the solution lie in something entirely unexpected? Perhaps there's a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-matter-may-consist-of-particles-that-travel-faster-than-light/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new particle or force</a> that affects the expansion rate. Or maybe the nature of dark energy changes over time. 



Some theories even propose the existence of extra dimensions or modifications to gravity at large scales. It's also worth considering that the universe might not be uniform in all directions. 



If there are variations in the density of matter and energy across vast distances, this could affect expansion rates in ways we haven't fully accounted for. 



Maybe everyone is completely off base and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-dark-matter-does-not-exist-and-the-universe-is-27-billion-years-old/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark matter doesn't even exist</a>? Or maybe we're looking in the wrong place -- what if the answers can be found by looking for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-are-now-searching-for-dark-matter-inside-old-earth-rocks-minerals-crystals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark matter in rocks on Earth</a>?



One thing's for sure: the cosmos isn't giving up its secrets easily. But that's part of the thrill of science. Every answer leads to new questions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hubble-constant-hubble-tension-mysterious-universe">Hubble constant, Hubble tension, mysterious universe</h2>



In the end, the universe is reminding us that there's still so much we don't know. The quest to figure out how fast our universe is expanding has led to some fascinating discoveries and even more intriguing questions. 



Scientists like Adam Riess and Brenda Frye have used powerful tools like the Hubble and James Webb Space Telescopes to measure the Hubble constant with increasing precision. 



Their efforts confirm that the local universe is expanding at a certain rate, but this doesn't quite line up with measurements from the early universe.



This mismatch, known as the Hubble Tension, suggests there might be something we’re missing in our understanding of the cosmos. Maybe there are new physics to uncover, or perhaps our current models need some tweaking. 



What's clear is that the universe isn't giving up its secrets easily, and that keeps things exciting for astronomers and physicists alike.



As we look ahead, upcoming missions like NASA's <a href="https://roman.gsfc.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope</a> and ESA's <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Euclid" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Euclid mission</a> offer hope for new insights. Until then, we can marvel at the fact that we're part of an ever-expanding universe that's still full of surprises.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/ad1ddd" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astrophysical Journal Letters</a>.



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NASA report: What we think we know about the universe is very wrong

For decades, scientists have been grappling with what is considered...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

Panoramic View of Canada&#8230;WOW! Today’s Image of the Day comes thanks to the <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> and features a look at a beautiful panoramic view of Canada. The particular view faces the north, and includes Vancouver Island on the far west, the Coast Mountains in the middle, and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-rocky-mountains-have-had-extreme-wildfire-seasons-in-the-past-2/">Rocky Mountains</a> to the east.

Panoramic View of Canada

This Image of the Day comes thanks to the <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> and features a look at hail damage in South Dakota and Minnesota. Severe thunderstorms brought downpours of hail that fell over corn and soybean fields right in the middle of growing season.