Acaena exigua NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S.<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-surface-slicks-create-superhighway-for-fish/"> Fish</a> and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. Acaena exigua is an extinct species of flowering plant in the rose family known by the common name liliwai. It was endemic to Hawaii, where it was known from Kauaʻi and west Maui. It had not been seen or collected since 1957 and was feared extinct until 1997, when one plant was discovered in a remote montane bog on <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=maui&amp;cvid=11f593b142284a109c4b71b63cd85874&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Maui</a>. The plant died in 2000, and the species is now considered extinct.Acaena exigua A. Gray var. subtusstrigulosa Bitter: Classification. Click on a scientific name below to expand it in the PLANTS Classification Report. Rank Scientific Name and Common Name; Kingdom: Plantae – Plants Subkingdom: Tracheobionta

Acaena exigua

Acaena exigua NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation...

Abies guatemalensis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.A. guatemalensis is a conical tree growing 20 to 35 meters tall and 60 to 90 cm in girth. The branches grow largely horizontally. The <a title="Bark (botany)" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bark_(botany)">bark</a> is a blackish-brown and is divided into plates. The branchlets are reddish-brown to deep blackish-red and pubescent. The <a class="mw-redirect" title="Buds" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buds">buds</a> are globular-ovoid, resinous, and roughly 5 mm in length. The <a class="mw-redirect" title="Leaves" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaves">leaves</a> are somewhat comb-like or nearly pectinate in arrangement. They are unequal and deep green above and waxy in texture underneath. They measure 1.5 to 5.5 cm long by 1.2 to 2 mm wide. <a title="Stoma" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoma">Stomata</a> are usually absent above, but appear in 8 to 10 lines below. They contain two marginal resin canals and the apex of the leaf is notched and emarginate. The female <a title="Conifer cone" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conifer_cone">cones</a> are oblong-cylindric and the apex is pointed to somewhat flattened. They are yellowish-brown in colour with a violet bloom and measure 8 to 11.5 cm long by 4 to 4.5 cm wide. The scales are oblong, or broader than long. The <a title="Bract" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bract">bracts</a> are hidden, about one half the height of the scale and are cuneate-obovoid in shape. The <a title="Seed" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seed">seeds</a> are a light brown nut to 9 mm in length with a wing to 1.5 cm long"

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Abies guatemalensis

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Abronia macrocarpa NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

Abronia macrocarpa is a perennial herb with a hairy, glandular stem growing up to half a meter tall. The glandular oval leaf blades are up to 5 centimeters long by 3.5 wide and are borne on relatively long <a title="Petiole (botany)" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petiole_(botany)">petioles</a>. The <a title="Inflorescence" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflorescence">inflorescence</a> is a cluster of up to 75 magenta or light purple flowers each up to 3 centimeters long. The tubular, strongly fragrant flowers open at dusk and are <a title="Pollination" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollination">pollinated</a> by <a title="Moth" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moth">moths</a>. The winged fruit is up to 1.5 centimeters long. It is <a title="Biological dispersal" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_dispersal">dispersed</a> by wind.

Its natural habitat is sandy soils with little other vegetation, often in openings of post-oak woodlands

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Abronia macrocarpa

Abronia macrocarpa NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Abutilon eremitopetalum NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

Abutilon eremitopetalum ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.Abutilon eremitopetalum, commonly known as the hidden-petaled abutilon or hiddenpetal Indian mallow, is a species of <a title="Flowering plant" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flowering_plant">flowering</a> shrub in the <a title="Malva" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malva">mallow</a> family, Malvaceae. It is endemic to dry forests and low shrublands on the <a title="Windward and leeward" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windward_and_leeward">windward</a> side of the island of Lānaʻi in <a title="Hawaii" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaii">Hawaii</a>. It is classified by the IUCN Red List as critically endangered by habitat destruction.The species was first discovered in 1987. Fish are gill-bearing aquatic craniate animals that lack limbs with digits. They form a sister group to the tunicates, together forming the olfactores. Included in this definition are the living hagfish, lampreys, and cartilaginous and bony fish as well as various extinct

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=fish&amp;cvid=051056fee95547398bc5795d84ee6725&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Fish</a> and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Abutilon eremitopetalum

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Abutilon menziesii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/changing-ocean-soundscapes-impact-animals-worldwide/">animals</a> and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world. Abutilon menziesii is <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=endangered+species&amp;cvid=78d216ecaa634aeb936f4769c391ccc9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">endangered</a>.Abutilon menziesii, known as Koʻoloaʻula in Hawaiian, is an endangered species of flowering shrub in the mallow family, Malvaceae,  Malvaceae, that is endemic to Hawaii. It is a sprawling shrub that can reach up to 10 feet in height. The leaves, which range from an inch in width to about five inches, vary in their shapes. They have a velvety feel to them. The small hibiscus-shaped flowers generally hang downward. Though charming up close, the flowers can be hidden by the much larger leaves and not often visible at a distance. Although the Hawaiian name ʻula refers to the more commonly seen red color, koʻoloa ʻula

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Abutilon menziesii

Abutilon menziesii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Abutilon sandwicense NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Abutilon sandwicense, commonly known as the greenflower Indian mallow, is a species of <a title="Flowering plant" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flowering_plant">flowering plant</a> in the <a title="Malva" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malva">mallow</a> family, Malvaceae, that is endemic to the island of Oʻahu, <a title="Hawaii" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaii">Hawaii</a>, in the <a title="United States" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States">United States</a>. It inhabits dry forests on the slopes of the Waiʻanae Range at elevations of 400–600 m (1,300–2,000 ft). Associated plants include lama (Diospyros sandwicensis), ēlama (<a title="Diospyros hillebrandii" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diospyros_hillebrandii">D. hillebrandii</a>), māmaki (Pipturus albidus), kalia (Elaeocarpus <a class="new" title="Elaeocarpus bifidus (page does not exist)" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elaeocarpus_bifidus&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1">bifidus</a>), āulu (Sapindus oahuensis), olopua (<a title="Nestegis sandwicensis" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nestegis_sandwicensis">Nestegis sandwicensis</a>), and alaheʻe (Psydrax odorata). Greenflower Indian mallow is a shrub, reaching a height of 1.5–3 m (4.9–9.8 ft). It is threatened by <a class="mw-redirect" title="Habitat loss" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_loss">habitat loss</a>.

Abutilon sandwicense

Abutilon sandwicense NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Acanthomintha ilicifolia. NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

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Acanthomintha ilicifolia, known by the common name San Diego thornmint, is a rare species of flowering plant in the <a title="Lamiaceae" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamiaceae">mint family</a>. It is native to <a title="Baja California" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baja_California">Baja California</a> and <a title="San Diego County, California" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Diego_County,_California">San Diego County, California</a>, where it is a resident of the <a title="Chaparral" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaparral">chaparral</a> and <a title="Coastal sage scrub" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coastal_sage_scrub">coastal sage scrub</a> plant communities and <a title="Vernal pool" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vernal_pool">vernal pools</a>.

Acanthomintha ilicifolia has been <a title="Local extinction" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_extinction">extirpated</a> from many of the sites where it was previously noted in San Diego County. It is a federally listed threatened species in the United States. This species is also listed as endangered under the <a title="California Endangered Species Act" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Endangered_Species_Act">California Endangered Species Act</a> which means that killing or possessing the plants is prohibited within <a title="California" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California">California</a> unless authorized by the California Department of Fish and Game.

Acanthomintha ilicifolia

Acanthomintha ilicifolia. NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Acanthomintha obovata ssp. duttonii. NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/changing-ocean-soundscapes-impact-animals-worldwide/">animals</a> too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

Acanthomintha obovata ssp. duttonii ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=e31edaa0953840a0af562f33e9814b78&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.  Acanthomintha duttonii is a species of annual plant endemic to San Mateo County, California in the family Lamiaceae. It is commonly called San Mateo thornmint and is found growing on serpentine soils near the Crystal Springs Reservoir in a six-mile long strip on the east side of Montara Mountain at elevations of approximately 150 to 300 meters. an annual herb that is native to California and and is endemic (limited) to California. also called Acanthomintha obovata ssp. duttonii California Rare Plant Rank: 1B.1 ( rare, threatened, or endangered in CA and elsewhere ).

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Acanthomintha obovata ssp. duttonii

Acanthomintha obovata ssp. duttonii. NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe...

Achyranthes mutica NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and<a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/"> Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.Achyranthes mutica A. Gray – blunt chaff flower Subordinate Taxa. This plant has no children Legal Status. Threatened and Endangered Information: This plant is listed by the U.S. federal government or a state. Common names are from state and federal lists. Click on a place name to get a complete protected plant list for that location.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=43301dd515c748d8ad14055801b02e2c&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.Achyranthes mutica (also called blunt chaff flower) is a species of <a title="Plant" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant">plant</a> in the family <a title="Amaranthaceae" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amaranthaceae">Amaranthaceae</a>. It is <a title="Endemism" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemism">endemic</a> to <a title="Hawaii" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaii">Hawaii</a>. Its natural <a title="Habitat" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat">habitats</a> are <a title="Hawaiian tropical dry forests" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaiian_tropical_dry_forests">dry forests</a> and subtropical or tropical dry <a title="Shrubland" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shrubland">shrubland</a>. It is threatened by <a class="mw-redirect" title="Habitat loss" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_loss">habitat loss</a>.

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Achyranthes mutica

Achyranthes mutica NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Achyranthes splendens var. rotundata. NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-investigate-the-mysterious-origin-of-flowering-plants/">plants</a> and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world. Achyranthes splendens var. rotundata Genus is derived from the Greek achyron, chaff, and anthos, flower, referring to the chaffy parts of the flower. The Latin ephithet splendens means shining

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Achyranthes splendens (ʻEwa hinahina; also called Maui chaff flower, round chaff flower, round-leaf chaff flower, or round-leaved chaff flower) is a species of flowering plant in the <a title="Amaranth" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amaranth">pigweed</a> family, <a title="Amaranthaceae" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amaranthaceae">Amaranthaceae</a>, that is <a title="Endemism" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemism">endemic</a> to <a title="Hawaii" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaii">Hawaiʻi</a>. Its natural <a title="Habitat" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat">habitats</a> are <a title="Hawaiian tropical dry forests" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaiian_tropical_dry_forests">dry forests</a>, <a title="Hawaiian tropical low shrublands" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaiian_tropical_low_shrublands">low shrublands</a>, and <a title="Sand" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sand">sandy</a> shores. It is threatened by <a class="mw-redirect" title="Habitat loss" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_loss">habitat loss</a>. Native Hawaiians have, for centuries, considered its extract to be an effective natural cure for constipation.

Achyranthes splendens var. rotundata

Achyranthes splendens var. rotundata. NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe...

Acmispon dendroideus var. traskiae (=Lotus d. ssp. traskiae) NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.Syrmatium veatchii, <a title="Synonym (taxonomy)" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synonym_(taxonomy)">synonyms</a> Lotus dendroideus and Acmispon dendroideus, is a species of <a title="Faboideae" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faboideae">legume</a> native to <a title="California" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California">California</a>. It is known by the common name island broom. It is <a title="Endemism" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemism">endemic</a> to the <a class="mw-redirect" title="Channel Islands of California" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_Islands_of_California">Channel Islands of California</a>, where it grows on coastal bluffs and cliffs. It is a spreading perennial herb or erect <a title="Shrub" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shrub">shrub</a> approaching 2 meters in height. It is hairless to hairy and gray-green in color. The branches lined with leaves each made up of a few oval leaflike leaflets up to 1.5 centimeters long each. The <a title="Inflorescence" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflorescence">inflorescence</a> bears up to 10 yellow pealike flowers, each roughly a centimeter long and fading red as they age

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Acmispon dendroideus var. traskiae (=Lotus d. ssp. traskiae)

Acmispon dendroideus var. traskiae (=Lotus d. ssp. traskiae) NatureServe Explorer...

Aconitum noveboracense. NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

Aconitum noveboracense, also known as northern blue monkshood or northern wild monkshood, is a flowering <a title="Plant" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant">plant</a> belonging to the buttercup family (<a title="Ranunculaceae" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranunculaceae">Ranunculaceae</a>). Members of its genus (<a title="Aconitum" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aconitum">Aconitum</a>) are also known as wolfsbane.

The <a title="United States Fish and Wildlife Service" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Fish_and_Wildlife_Service">United States Fish and Wildlife Service</a> government lists it as a <a class="mw-redirect" title="Threatened" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threatened">threatened</a> species.<a class="external autonumber" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aconitum_noveboracense#endnote_ecos.fws.gov.129">[1]</a> It grows in rare portions of <a class="mw-redirect" title="New York State" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_State">New York State</a> and in portions of the <a title="Driftless Area" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Driftless_Area">Driftless Area</a>.

Northern monkshood is noted for its very distinctive, blue hood-shaped flowers. The flowers are about 1 inch in length, and a single stem may have many flowers. Stems range from about 1 to 4 feet in length. The leaves are broad with coarse, toothed lobes.
<ul>
 	<li>Only found in Iowa, Wisconsin, Ohio, and New York.</li>
 	<li>Typically found on shaded to partially shaded cliffs, <a class="mw-redirect" title="Algific talus slopes" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algific_talus_slopes">algific talus slopes</a>, or on cool, streamside sites. These areas have cool soil conditions, cold air drainage, or cold groundwater flowage. On algific talus slopes, these conditions are caused by the outflow of cool air and water from ice contained in underground fissures. These fissures are connected to sinkholes and are a conduit for the air flows.</li>
</ul>
FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Aconitum noveboracense

Aconitum noveboracense. NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Adenophorus periens NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=fish&amp;cvid=051056fee95547398bc5795d84ee6725&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Fish</a> and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Adenophorus periens is a rare species of <a title="Fern" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fern">fern</a> known by the common name pendant kihi fern. It is <a title="Endemism" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemism">endemic</a> to <a title="Hawaii" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaii">Hawaii</a>, where it is known from one population in <a title="Puna, Hawaii" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puna,_Hawaii">Puna</a> on the island of <a title="Hawaii (island)" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaii_(island)">Hawaii</a> and a few occurrences on <a title="Kauai" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kauai">Kauai</a> and <a title="Molokai" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molokai">Molokai</a>. The fern occurs in wet mountain forests on volcanic slopes. It grows on trees. There are perhaps 2000 individual plants remaining. This is a federally listed <a title="Endangered species" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangered_species">endangered species</a> of the United States.

This fern is easily distinguished from others in its genus, with its long, hanging fronds that may exceed 40 centimeters in length, twice as long as other Adenophorus. The leaflets on the fronds are twisted at an angle to the <a title="Rachis" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachis">rachis</a> and the leaf edges are lined with unique hairs. <a title="Genetic analysis" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_analysis">Genetic analysis</a> reveals that the fern has a high <a title="Genetic diversity" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_diversity">genetic diversity</a> for such a rare species.

Threats to the species include <a title="Lava" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lava">lava</a> and <a title="Volcanic gas" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_gas">gas</a> from the volcanoes on which it grows, as well as the death of its host trees, <a title="Introduced species" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introduced_species">introduced species</a> including <a title="Weed" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weed">weeds</a> and <a title="Feral pig" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feral_pig">feral pigs</a>, and <a class="mw-redirect" title="Geothermal electricity" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_electricity">geothermal development</a>.

Adenophorus periens

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Adiantum vivesii. NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/plants-cannot-keep-up-with-rising-co2-levels/">plants</a>, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.Adiantum vivesii is <a title="Endemism" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemism">endemic</a> to <a title="Puerto Rico" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_Rico">Puerto Rico</a>, where it is known from a single population made up of perhaps 1000 individuals near <a title="Quebradillas, Puerto Rico" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quebradillas,_Puerto_Rico">Quebradillas</a>, in the <a class="mw-redirect" title="San Juan – Caguas – Guaynabo metropolitan area" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Juan_%E2%80%93_Caguas_%E2%80%93_Guaynabo_metropolitan_area">San Juan – Caguas – Guaynabo metropolitan area</a> on the northern side of the island.The fern was discovered in 1985 and described to science as a new species in 1989. Soon after, it was listed as an <a title="Endangered species" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangered_species">endangered species</a>. It is a putative hybrid between Adiantum obliquum and A. tetraphyllum. In 2003 a specimen that most likely represents this species was collected on Petit Morne in Martinique by botanist <a class="mw-redirect" title="Maarten Christenhusz" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maarten_Christenhusz">Maarten Christenhusz</a> collection number 2678 (BM, SP, TUR, U, UC), which means that the hybrid has occurred twice independently.

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Adiantum vivesii

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Aeschynomene virginica NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.Aeschynomene virginica is a rare species of flowering plant in the legume family known by the common names Virginia jointvetch and sensitive jointvetch. It is native to a small section of the East Coast of the United States, where it has a fluctuating annual global population scattered in about 20 mostly small occurrences. Counts and estimates revealed two populations in New Jersey including several thousand individuals, one population of a few hundred plants in Maryland, several variable and unstable populations in ditches in North Carolina, and several populations including about 5000 individuals in Virginia. Habitat

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Aeschynomene virginica

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Agalinis acuta NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

Agalinis acuta is an annual hemiparasitic plant native to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flash-flooding-devastates-maryland/">Maryland</a>, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and Long Island, New York. Common names include sandplain gerardia and sandplain false foxglove. It is one of about 70 species that comprise genus Agalinis. It currently resides within the family Orobanchaceae, but historically was aligned with members of the Scrophulariaceae. This was one of several re-alignments that were the consequence of the disintegration of the Scrophulariaceae as the result of conclusions based on molecular phylogeny data from the chloroplast genome. While historically regarded as a separate species, molecular phylogenetic data indicates that Agalinis acuta should be consolidated as part of the species Agalinis decemloba.

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Agalinis acuta

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Agave eggersiana NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=canada&amp;cvid=b3d93bdc390d43a7878fe6e35c4015bf&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network. Agave eggersiana

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.Agave eggersiana, Eggers' century plant, is an <a title="Endangered species" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangered_species">endangered species</a> of spiky <a title="Plant" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant">plant</a> which grows in the <a title="Virgin Islands" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgin_Islands">Virgin Islands</a>, in dry, exposed areas. Agave eggersiana is a perennial herb known in the wild only from the island of <a class="mw-redirect" title="St. Croix" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Croix">St. Croix</a> of the U.S. <a title="Virgin Islands" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgin_Islands">Virgin Islands</a> (USFWS 1998a).A small number of plants remain on private land and are threatened by tourist development (USFWS 1998b). Other threats include feral pigs and goats on <a title="National Park Service" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Park_Service">National Park Service</a> land (USFWS 1998b). Research needs include distribution and abundance, general biology and ecology (USFWS 1998a). The U.S. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-surface-slicks-create-superhighway-for-fish/">Fish</a> and Wildlife Service requests that any interested parties (concerned government agencies, the scientific community and/or industry) submit data or suggestions concerning this species (USFWS 1998b). The plant is being cultivated at the <a title="St. George Village Botanical Garden" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._George_Village_Botanical_Garden">St. George Village Botanical Garden</a> in St. Croix U.S.V.I.(USFWS 1998a) and at <a class="mw-redirect" title="Fairchild Botanical Gardens" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairchild_Botanical_Gardens">Fairchild Botanical Gardens</a> in south <a title="Florida" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florida">Florida</a>.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Agave eggersiana

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Alectryon macrococcus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/intense-wildfires-in-manitoba-canada/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north%20america&amp;qs=n&amp;form=QBRE&amp;sp=-1&amp;pq=&amp;sc=0-0&amp;sk=&amp;cvid=2A486C7EEB7F4DC9A48B1971A274D39A">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 579 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7.5% of the world's population.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Alectryon macrococcus

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Allium munzii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/changing-ocean-soundscapes-impact-animals-worldwide/">animals</a> too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world. Allium munzii is an onion that grows from a reddish-brown <a title="Bulb" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulb">bulb</a> just over a centimeter long. It produces an erect stem up to about 35 centimeters in maximum height and a single leaf which is usually a bit longer. The <a title="Umbel" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umbel">umbel</a> contains up to 35 flowers each under a centimeter long. They have <a title="Tepal" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tepal">tepals</a> that are white with a dark green midvein, turning red with age. Pollen and anthers are yellow

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. Munz’s onion is a California threatened plant species, which means that killing or possessing the plant is prohibited by the California Endangered Species Act (CESA). It is also listed as endangered under the federal Endangered Species Act.

Allium munzii

Allium munzii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Terrestrial vegetation has been the foundation of food webs and a crucial ally in climate regulation for eons. From 2003 to 2021, that green land engine began to outpace its blue counterpart.



A new analysis draws on six independent satellite data sets to show that land plants increased their net primary production by roughly 0.2 billion metric tons of carbon each year. In contrast, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invisible-forest-of-phytoplankton-thrives-in-a-warming-climate/">marine phytoplankton</a> lost about half that amount.



The bottom line, write Yulong Zhang and colleagues from <a href="https://duke.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Duke University</a>, is that global photosynthesis still crept upward - just not everywhere, and not for the same reasons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-land-surge-in-net-primary-production">Land surge in net primary production </h2>



Because satellites can detect the chlorophyll pigments that make leaves and plankton appear green, researchers can turn those brightness maps into estimates of carbon fixed by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/revealing-the-secrets-of-photosynthesis-through-pep/">photosynthesis</a>.



For this study, the team blended three terrestrial and three marine products, covering nearly two decades. They then traced the annual ups and downs in each realm.



The land situation stood out immediately. “The shift toward greater primary production on land mainly stemmed from plants in higher latitudes, where warming has extended growing seasons and created more favorable temperatures,” explained study co-author Wenhong Li.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-thrive-oceans-decline">Forests thrive, oceans decline</h2>



In addition, temperate zones benefited from “local wetting in some areas, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-will-struggle-without-winter-snow/">forest</a> expansion, and cropland intensification.” These gains more than compensated for a stubborn patch of stagnation across tropical South America.



Ocean productivity told a different story. “Rising <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-are-substantially-changing-the-seasons-of-the-ocean/">sea surface temperatures</a> likely reduced primary production by phytoplankton in tropical and subtropical regions,” said Nicolas Cassar, senior scientist on the project.



Warmer surface layers, he noted, form a cap that suppresses the turbulent mixing needed to replenish nutrients in sun-lit waters. The result, ocean productivity declined by roughly 0.1 billion tons of carbon per year, with the Pacific basin leading the retreat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-carbon-tied-to-climate">Ocean carbon tied to climate</h2>



Although land plants dominated the long-term trend, oceans dictated much of the year-to-year variability.



“We observed that ocean primary production responds much more strongly to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/el-nino-climate-shifts-date-back-250-million-years/">El Niño</a> and La Niña than land primary production,” said study co-author Shineng Hu.



Indeed, a trio of La Niña events after 2015 temporarily reversed the downward slope in marine photosynthesis. This underlines how tightly plankton communities are lashed to climate oscillations.



The researchers parsed several environmental drivers - light, temperatures, precipitation, and mixed-layer depth - to understand why land and sea diverged. Their conclusion was that warming (and, in some places, wetter conditions) favored northern forests and fields. Meanwhile, the same warming starved tropical waters of nutrients.



“Whether the decline in ocean primary production will continue - and how long and to what extent increases on land can make up for those losses - remains a key unanswered question," noted Zhang. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-losses-threaten-biodiversity">Ocean losses threaten biodiversity</h2>



Photosynthetic organisms not only fuel ecosystems; they also shape the planet’s carbon balance. Terrestrial plants, boosted by longer growing seasons and human land management, currently outweigh the losses at sea, but the margin is slim.



Should ocean productivity continue to sag, tropical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protected-areas-dont-always-protect-food-webs/">food webs</a> - already strained - could fray further, jeopardizing fisheries and weakening a major carbon sink. 



As the authors caution, declines in plankton and stagnation on tropical land can weaken the foundation of tropical food webs. This will have cascading effects on biodiversity, fisheries, and local economies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-net-primary-production">Monitoring net primary production </h2>



The synthesis highlights the need for an integrated monitoring network that treats forests and phytoplankton as parts of one global engine.



“If you’re looking at planetary health, you want to look at both terrestrial and marine domains for an integrated view of net primary production,” Cassar emphasized.



Many of the foundational studies that stitched land and sea together are now more than two decades old. Updating that picture is urgent as climate patterns shift.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-fight-shifts-from-ocean-to-land">Carbon fight shifts from ocean to land</h2>



Net primary production, the authors argue, is effectively Earth’s scoreboard for life. It registers how much solar energy is converted into the organic matter that nourishes everything else.



According to Zhang, net primary production is the amount of energy photosynthetic organisms capture and make available to support nearly all other life in an ecosystem. That metric shows if the biosphere is gaining or losing ground in sequestering atmospheric carbon.



For now, an energetic Northern Hemisphere offsets a flagging equatorial ocean. But the equilibrium is delicate, and the drivers - temperature, rainfall, nutrient mixing - are changing fast.



“Long-term, coordinated monitoring of both land and ocean ecosystems as integrated components of Earth is essential," concluded Zhang. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-025-02375-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Climate Change</a>.



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Oceans lag behind forests in Earth’s carbon fight

Terrestrial vegetation has been the foundation of food webs and...

It’s common knowledge that plants need water to survive, but what’s less obvious is how differently they manage it. From forests to grasslands, plants have developed remarkably varied strategies to cope with water stress.



Some plants burn through water like there’s no tomorrow. Others ration it carefully. The kapok trees of the Amazon have different tactics than the tough grasses on the American plains. 



But until now, scientists had no easy way to compare how these strategies play out across different ecosystems and how they change when the environment shifts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-shortages-and-plant-behavior">Water shortages and plant behavior</h2>



Scientists at <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Santa Barbara</a> and <a href="https://www.sdsu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">San Diego State University</a> have found a way to make sense of this. They built a model that uses soil moisture data to detect how plants behave when it comes to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/not-all-plants-handle-water-the-same-heres-why-it-matters/">water</a>. 



The team applied this model to a global dataset, covering ecosystems all over the planet. The results show that two key factors drive plant behavior: how dry a place is, and how dense the vegetation is.



“When plants face water shortages, grasslands act like spendthrifts (using water aggressively until it’s gone). In contrast, forests act more like careful budgeters (cutting back water use early to avoid disaster),” said senior author Kelly Caylor, a professor at UCSB’s Bren School of Environmental Science &amp; Management.



The study also points out a flaw in existing models, noting that they likely overestimate how quickly ecosystems lose water during droughts. That has big implications for climate models, agriculture, and water planning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-smarter-way-to-read-soil">A smarter way to read soil</h2>



Plants respond to water stress in a wide variety of ways. That’s part of what makes them so good at surviving. But it’s also made it hard for scientists to find broad patterns in their behavior.



Lead author Bryn Morgan noticed something others had missed: the way soil moisture changes over time might hold the key.



Until now, models of soil drying were focused on being easy to calculate, not on accurately reflecting how plants actually use water. Most treated the relationship between plants and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-much-energy-do-plants-use-to-lift-water-from-the-soil/">soil</a> as linear - simple input, simple output.



“But there is nonlinearity in the data,” said co-author Ryoko Araki, a joint doctoral student at UCSB and SDSU.



To address this, Araki led the development of a new, nonlinear model. It captures how soil dries after rain - not just as a mathematical curve, but in a way that reflects how plants take risks (or don’t) when water is scarce. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-plants-spend-their-water-budget">How plants spend their water budget</h2>



With this model in hand, the team looked at soil moisture readings from a global network of sensors. They found the parts of each record where soil was drying and fit the model to each episode.



By studying the shape and slope of each drydown curve, they could tell how aggressive or conservative the plants were.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grasslands-are-racing-to-adapt-to-climate-shifts/">Grasslands</a> and dry regions tended to show more aggressive water use. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-provide-different-health-benefits-based-on-their-structure/">Forests</a> and wetter regions leaned more conservatively.



“If water is the currency of vegetated ecosystems, grasses are out here like, ‘YOLO,’ while trees are investing for retirement. They’re playing the long game," said Morgan.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-risky-behavior-vs-cautious-planning">Risky behavior vs. cautious planning</h2>



It’s not just about water - it’s about strategy. Grasses often live fast and die young. They might only have one shot at life per year. Trees are in it for the long haul. They can’t afford to damage their water-transport systems.



“Grasslands are like sprinters who give everything they have until they hit the wall,” Caylor explained. “Forests are like marathon runners who pace themselves and slow down strategically to finish a longer race.”



“This is the overall behavior, but, of course, we see a range of aggressive to conservative strategies within a given ecosystem," said Morgan. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adaptive-behavior-of-plants">Adaptive behavior of plants</h2>



Once the researchers had a sense of how ecosystems differ from each other, they looked at how behaviors shift within a single ecosystem.



The team found that as things get drier, or as water demand rises, plants change their strategy. They become more aggressive. For example, in a place like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/burrowing-animals-in-the-mojave-desert-escape-the-heat-of-climate-change/">Mojave Desert</a>, where rainfall is highly seasonal, plant behavior can swing wildly across the year.



Until now, scientists mostly studied water use either up-close in the lab or from afar using satellites. This model bridges that gap.



“Bryn’s approach is clever in using in-situ measurements at a global scale,” Araki said. That middle-ground perspective helped them see patterns that had been hidden.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-better-climate-models">Building better climate models</h2>



Soil moisture plays a role in global carbon and climate models, but these models rarely include the subtleties of plant behavior. 



“The uncertainty in estimates of the global carbon cycle is really sensitive to how vegetation responds to soil moisture limitation,” Morgan said.



Better models mean better predictions. Morgan has submitted a proposal to NASA to explore how this new nonlinear parameter could be folded into existing earth system models. She’s also interested in how these plant strategies feed back into the system over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-capturing-soil-moisture-dynamics">Capturing soil moisture dynamics</h2>



Araki, on the other hand, is focused on scaling. Soil moisture isn’t uniform. It changes a lot, even over short distances. That makes it hard to build accurate large-scale models.



“In reality there is topography, vegetation, soil,” said Araki. “So scientists can’t apply simple statistics to the system.”



“Understanding how soil moisture values themselves scale is something hydrologists have been interested in for decades,” noted Morgan. 



The challenge now is figuring out how to capture those dynamics - from a single measurement site all the way up to an entire watershed.



The full study was published in the journal Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution.



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Plants use unique strategies to budget water in the wild

It’s common knowledge that plants need water to survive, but...

Two thousand years ago, traders hauled baskets of dates along the dusty roads of Judea, unaware that a few fallen pits would one day slip back into the light. 



This year, those same pits stand taller than a person, their feathery leaves waving over the Arava desert in southern Israel.



A new study has documented the germination of these ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-plant-tissue-discovered-that-increases-seed-size-by-up-to-16-percent/">seeds</a> and traced their genetic roots to long-lost varieties of Judean date palms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seeds-that-outlived-empires">Seeds that outlived empires</h2>



<a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Sarah-Sallon" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Sarah Sallon</a> of Hadassah Medical Center and <a href="https://arava.org/arava-research-centers/arava-center-for-sustainable-agriculture/csa-staff/dr-elaine-solowey/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Elaine Solowey</a> of the Arava Institute coaxed the first of the ancient seeds, later nicknamed Methuselah, to germinate in 2005.



Several companions soon followed, including female trees such as Hannah that can bear fruit when pollinated by their venerable brother. 



The pits came from archaeological digs at Masada and nearby desert caves, places where rebels once chose death over Roman capture.



Protected by the region’s bone dry air, the seeds escaped decay and insect jaws long enough to meet twenty first century potting soil.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unearthing-and-waking-the-dates">Unearthing and waking the dates</h2>



The team first soaked each pit in warm water, then bathed it in nutrient and growth hormone solutions before planting it in sterile soil. 



Some sprouted within eight weeks, while others dawdled for half a year, testing the botanists’ patience.



All the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-seeds-go-dormant-to-avoid-harsh-conditions/">seed</a> shells were sent to a lab to find out how old they were using carbon testing, confirming ages that range from the fourth century BCE to the second century CE.&nbsp;



Once green shoots appeared, the seedlings moved to a quarantine greenhouse where desert sunlight and desalinated water mimicked ancient flood plain conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-the-age">Measuring the age</h2>



Radiocarbon results alone could have been disputed, so the team compared seed size and shape with those of 100 modern date varieties. 



The ancient pits were about thirty percent larger, <a href="https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/new-fruit-from-old-seeds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">matching</a> Roman writers’ praise for the hefty, honey flavored Judean crop.



Their thick shells likely slowed oxygen seepage and microbial attack, key factors in extreme seed longevity.



When Methuselah finally unfurled its first frond, it became the oldest known <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/buried-seeds-in-soil-help-forests-recover-faster-after-damage/">seed</a> ever germinated under human care.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reading-ancient-genomes">Reading ancient genomes</h2>



Once the palms were strong enough for leaf sampling, researchers used DNA sequencing to build whole genomes. 



The work showed that eastern varieties dominated earlier centuries, while later pits carried genes from North Africa and Mesopotamia.



That genetic mosaic backs the view that Judean farmers imported elite cultivars and pollinated them with local males, a practice that helped dates conquer distant markets. 



It also gives modern breeders clues for drought tolerance, disease resistance, and the caramel-like sweetness prized in the Middle East.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-in-seed-longevity">Lessons in seed longevity</h2>



The Judean date palms aren’t the only ancient seeds to make a comeback. In 2012, Russian scientists grew a flower from fruit that had been frozen in the ground for 32,000 years.



In the 1990s, American botanist <a href="https://aspb.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Legacy-Society-Founding-Members-Jane-Shen-Miller.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jane Shen Miller</a> sprouted a lotus seed that had slept for roughly 1,300 years in a dry Chinese lakebed.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Together, these feats show that protective seed coats, cool or arid storage, and low oxygen extend viability far beyond typical agricultural timelines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-taste-of-history-to-come">A taste of history to come</h2>



Hannah produced her first small cluster of dates in 2020 after receiving Methuselah’s pollen, and volunteers described the flavor as subtly sweet with a hint of honey. 



If later harvests confirm that judgment, chefs and growers could someday reintroduce an authentic “biblical date” to markets from Tel Aviv to New York.



“It won’t be the typical Judean date,” Sallon cautions that today’s trees are still genetic blends rather than perfect copies of their Iron Age ancestors. Noting that ancient growers usually propagated prized females by offshoots rather than by seed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-longevity-matters-now">Why longevity matters now</h2>



Modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seeds-rich-in-protein-and-magnesium-help-grow-muscle-mass-fenugreek/">seed</a> banks aim to store crop diversity in case of climate shocks, disease, or war. 



Knowing that date pits survived two millennia suggests that vaults kept cool and dry could protect food security far longer than current targets of a few decades.



The old palms also stir cultural memory. People today can stand beside living organisms that first saw sunlight when the Second Temple still dominated Jerusalem, an encounter that makes the past tangible without museum glass.



Sheer curiosity drove the long experiment, yet its payoff reaches beyond nostalgia. 



Genomic clues from the revived palms may help breeders develop heat resilient dates for a warming planet, and the hardy seedlings themselves could replenish groves threatened by salinity and pests.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-024-06721-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.</a>



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Scientists manage to grow plants from ancient seeds that are 2,000 years old

Two thousand years ago, traders hauled baskets of dates along...

Walk through any African rainforest at the height of fruit season, and you will eventually stumble upon a surprising scene: apes foraging not in the treetops but on the forest floor, scooping up fallen figs or overripe marulas that have begun to ferment.



Until now, primatologists have documented the behavior but lacked a word that sets it apart from ordinary fruit eating. 



A new paper led by <a href="https://home.dartmouth.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dartmouth College</a> anthropologist Nathaniel Dominy and <a href="https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of St Andrews</a> primatologist Catherine Hobaiter fixes that linguistic oversight by proposing a single, evocative term - “scrumping.”



“It’s not that primatologists have never seen scrumping - they observe it pretty regularly. But the absence of a word for it has disguised its importance,” Dominy explained.



By naming the habit, the authors hope to inspire more systematic data collection. This simple ground-level snack could hold outsized clues to why human beings tolerate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drunk-animals-may-explain-humans-love-of-alcohol/">alcohol</a> so well.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-medieval-word-for-a-modern-puzzle"><a></a>A medieval word for a modern puzzle</h2>



Scrumping originates from the Middle English rendering of the German “schrimpen.” The word described “shriveled” or “shrunken” fruit that had fallen off the tree. In rural England today, “scrumpy” refers to a rustic cider fermented from windfallen apples.



Dominy and Hobaiter argue that the linguistic lineage is perfect for apes pilfering fermented fruit. Both activities involve the opportunistic gathering of overripe produce with elevated alcohol content.



The name matters because, until now, field notes have lumped floor-foraging events with canopy foraging under the bland heading of “fruit feeding.” That lumping masks the ecological stakes. 



Once fruit hits the ground, it becomes a microbial playground where yeasts convert sugars into alcohols. This process often gives the fruit an ethanol punch of a few percent.



For a 220-pound chimp eating ten pounds of such fruit per day, that may add up to a low but steady dose of alcohol. If the capacity to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/living-at-high-altitude-leads-to-longer-life-by-changing-metabolism/">metabolize</a> that ethanol confers a survival advantage, then scrumping could have exerted evolutionary pressure on primate digestive enzymes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-linking-scrumping-apes-to-alcohol-genes">Linking scrumping apes to alcohol genes</h2>



In 2015, geneticists reported that the primary enzyme humans use to break down ethanol - ADH4 - underwent a pivotal amino acid tweak in the last common ancestor of humans, chimpanzees and gorillas.



That mutation boosted the enzyme’s efficiency fortyfold. The genetic timeline aligns suspiciously well with fossil and climatic evidence suggesting early apes were spending more time on the ground, perhaps because <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-cooling-wont-be-a-quick-fix-for-the-state-of-our-oceans/">global cooling</a> was fragmenting forest canopies.



Dominy’s team suspected that scrumping, not tree foraging, was the behavior that turned the genetic key. To test the prevalence of ground-level fruit snacking, they combed through thousands of feeding observations for chimpanzees, western gorillas, mountain gorillas, and orangutans.



Every record pairing ground-level apes with a fruit species normally found higher in the canopy counted as a scrumping event. African apes did it routinely. 



Orangutans of Southeast Asia, by contrast, almost never did - and tellingly, the 2015 gene study shows orangutans have a far less efficient version of ADH4.



These weren’t differences of nuance - African apes scrump on a regular basis, but orangutans do not. The contrast strengthens the idea that processing dietary ethanol was an adaptive edge for African lineages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-escaping-competition-avoiding-falls"><a></a>Escaping competition, avoiding falls</h2>



Why would a large ape bother with windfall fruit instead of plucking fresher pieces overhead? Dominy points to two incentives. 



First, avoiding the highest branches reduces the risk of potentially fatal falls - a risk he and co-author Luke Fannin quantified in a 2023 study showing that accidents in the canopy exact serious tolls on primate skeletons.



Second, staying on the ground lets apes sidestep competition with smaller, more nimble monkeys that strip trees of unripe fruit. If ethanol metabolism means an ape can safely eat the fermented fare, it gains a foraging niche all its own.



“A fundamental feature of our relationship with alcohol is our tendency to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-social-drinking-feels-so-different-from-drinking-alone/">drink together</a>," said Hobaiter. She wonders whether shared ape scrumping sessions reinforce social bonds in apes the way communal drinking does in humans.



Future fieldwork will track whether group foraging for windfallen fruit correlates with grooming, alliance formation, or mating opportunities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-happy-hour-in-the-jungle">Happy hour in the jungle</h2>



The next empirical frontier is chemistry. Researchers plan to sample ethanol concentrations in fruits still hanging versus fruits lying on the forest floor. They will also monitor ape breath or urine for ethanol metabolites to estimate intake more precisely.



If chronic low-level exposure proves common, it could reshape narratives about ancient hominin diets and even the timing of the agricultural revolution, when humans began deliberately fermenting grains and grapes.



“Scrumping by the last common ancestor of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gorillas-are-digging-for-a-surprising-food-in-the-jungle-soil/">gorillas</a>, chimpanzees, and humans about 10 million years ago could explain why humans are so astoundingly good at digesting alcohol,” Dominy noted.



He suggests that long before our ancestors brewed beer, natural selection had already equipped them with biochemical bar tabs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-will-scrumping-stick">Will scrumping stick?</h2>



Scientific neologisms catch on only if they fill a conceptual gap - think “symbiosis” in the 19th century or Richard Dawkins’s “meme” in 1976. Dominy believes scrumping meets that test.



It instantly conveys a specific behavior - ground foraging for fermented fruit - that generic terms cannot. If colleagues adopt the label, datasets will soon be searchable, hypotheses testable, and evolutionary stories clearer.



“We never knew we needed the word until we did. That’s natural selection at work,” Dominy said. Whether scrumping becomes a staple of primatology vocabulary remains to be seen. 



But the paper makes a compelling case: name the behavior, and the science of why we drink - and how we evolved - may gain a fresh ferment of insight.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/advance-article/doi/10.1093/biosci/biaf102/8215783">BioScience</a>.



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"Scrumping" apes may explain how humans started drinking alcohol

Walk through any African rainforest at the height of fruit...

An ancient encounter between distant plant relatives forever changed agriculture. About nine million years ago, natural interbreeding between a tomato ancestor and a South American Etuberosum species led to the first true potato. 



This unexpected hybridization created a plant with one powerful trait: the ability to grow tubers underground.



Published in the journal Cell, the study reveals how this hybrid event transformed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-psychoactive-plants-helped-build-an-ancient-empire/">evolution</a>. Tubers enabled plants to store nutrients below the surface, helping them survive climate shifts and colonize new terrains.



“Our findings show how a hybridization event between species can spark the evolution of new traits, allowing even more species to emerge,” said co-author Sanwen Huang of the <a href="https://www.caas.cn/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences</a>. “We’ve finally solved the mystery of where potatoes came from.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potatoes-are-more-tomato-than-expected">Potatoes are more tomato than expected</h2>



While the potato resembles some tuberless Chilean <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-seeds-reveal-plant-migration-path-from-asia-to-australia/">species</a>, it shares more genetic ties with tomatoes. To investigate, the researchers sequenced 450 cultivated potato genomes and 56 wild relatives.



They discovered that all potatoes carry a stable genetic blend from both Etuberosum and tomato-like ancestors. 



The two lineages diverged around 14 million years ago, yet still interbred after 5 million years of separation. This compatibility led to the birth of the modern potato lineage with tuber-forming capabilities.



“Wild potatoes are very difficult to sample, so this dataset represents the most comprehensive collection of wild potato genomic data ever analyzed,” said study first author Zhiyang Zhang.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-origins-of-modern-potatoes">Origins of modern potatoes </h2>



By tracing the source of tuber-related genes, the study showed how specific gene combinations enabled tuber development. One gene, SP6A, came from the tomato ancestor. It acts like a timer, signaling when to begin tuber formation. 



Another gene, IT1, came from Etuberosum and drives the actual growth of the underground stem structures.



Without these two genes, tubers would not exist. Their presence in the hybrid offspring gave the new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evidence-of-ancient-plant-farming-found-in-east-africa/">lineage</a> a nutritional edge.



This combination also solved a long-standing contradiction. While tuberless Etuberosum plants resemble modern potatoes, they lacked these hybrid genes. Potatoes, on the other hand, inherited the best of both parents.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tubers-helped-potatoes-survive">Tubers helped potatoes survive</h2>



The potato’s evolutionary breakthrough matched a dramatic environmental shift. The Andes mountains were rising rapidly during this period. These changes brought colder, harsher conditions. 



Underground tubers allowed the hybrids to store energy and survive drought, frost, and low oxygen.



Tubers gave potatoes another advantage: asexual reproduction. A single tuber can sprout new plants without seeds or flowers. This helped the species spread across diverse&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-turtle-day-2025-ancient-creatures-with-modern-challenges/">ecosystems</a>, from mountain slopes to temperate grasslands.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rewiring-of-plant-hormone-systems">Rewiring of plant hormone systems</h2>



The research uncovered even deeper changes. Potato hybridization did not just merge genes. It altered hormonal pathways. Tuber formation involves a shift from flowering-focused reproduction to underground storage growth.



The researchers found reduced expression of flowering genes and increased activation of genes that promote storage organ formation. These changes involved key hormones like gibberellins, which control plant development. 



The hybrid lineage adjusted hormone balances to support tuber growth while limiting flower formation when necessary.



The SP6A and IT1 genes did not act alone. They interacted with regulators of sugar transport and underground stem expansion. This suggests that tuber evolution affected entire physiological networks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-hybridization-fuels-plant-diversity">How hybridization fuels plant diversity</h2>



Hybridization between distant plant lineages is rare, but powerful. It can bypass reproductive barriers, create new species, and introduce useful traits. In the potato’s case, hybridization created an entirely new reproductive strategy using vegetative propagation through tubers.



This ability allowed potatoes to diversify rapidly. The Andes became a hotspot for wild potato speciation. Each species adapted to different altitudes and climates.



“Evolving a tuber gave potatoes a huge advantage in harsh environments, fueling an explosion of new species and contributing to the rich diversity of potatoes we see and rely on today,” Huang said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tomatoes-helped-create-potatoes">Tomatoes helped create potatoes</h2>



The potato is now one of the world’s most essential crops, feeding billions. But its success began with one wild encounter between tomato-like and Etuberosum ancestors.



Through ancient hybridization, potatoes gained the ability to thrive underground, reproduce without seeds, and adapt to varied environments. Their tubers became both survival tools and culinary staples.



Scientists have finally traced that origin story, showing how a distant botanical union shaped the potato and our diets.



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(25)00736-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell</a>.



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Potato origins mystery solved after 9 million years

An ancient encounter between distant plant relatives forever changed agriculture....

We hear a lot about how climate change affects animals - but what if the reverse is also true?



New research suggests that when animals disappear from forests, the forests lose one of their key tools for fighting climate change. That connection between animals and climate may be even stronger than we thought.



Scientists at the <a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> have found that tropical forests regrow much more effectively when they still have healthy populations of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-plants-wont-survive-the-loss-of-seed-dispersing-animals/">seed-dispersing animals</a>. 



In fact, they can absorb up to four times more carbon than similar forests where those animals are missing or declining.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-need-wildlife-to-function">Forests need wildlife to function</h2>



Tropical forests are the planet’s biggest land-based carbon sinks. That means they absorb and store more carbon than any other type of ecosystem. 



So, understanding what keeps those forests functioning isn’t just an ecological question - it’s a climate question.



Evan Fricke, a research scientist in the MIT Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, is the lead author of the new study.



“The results underscore the importance of animals in maintaining healthy, carbon-rich tropical forests,” said Fricke. “When seed-dispersing animals decline, we risk weakening the climate-mitigating power of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-forests-are-struggling-to-keep-pace-with-climate-change/">tropical forests</a>.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animals-are-nature-s-forest-planters">Animals are nature’s forest planters</h2>



If you’ve ever watched a monkey munch on fruit or a bird fly off with a berry, you’ve seen nature’s version of forest management in action.



When these animals eat fruit and later defecate the seeds elsewhere, they help forests regenerate. In tropical regions, over 75 percent of tree species depend on animals to disperse their seeds.



Without those animals, seeds don’t travel far, germinate less often, and forests grow back more slowly - if at all.



Fricke has spent nearly 15 years studying this process. He’s shown in past work that animal seed dispersal helps <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-have-unique-fungi-partnerships-that-help-them-survive/">trees survive</a> and adapt. Now, his team is thinking more broadly about what that means for the planet.



“We’re now thinking more about the roles that animals might play in affecting the climate through seed dispersal,” Fricke said. 



“We know that in tropical forests, where more than three-quarters of trees rely on animals for seed dispersal, the decline of seed dispersal could affect not just the biodiversity of forests, but how they bounce back from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-deforestation-crisis-how-can-we-stop-massive-forest-losses/">deforestation</a>. We also know that all around the world, animal populations are declining.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-impact-of-missing-animals">The impact of missing animals</h2>



To find out just how big an impact this has, the MIT researchers pulled together massive datasets - on biodiversity, animal movement, seed dispersal, and carbon storage. They studied 17,000 plots, tracking animals’ locations, movements, and the seeds they dispersed.



The team also factored in human pressures. In areas with heavy human activity, animals didn’t travel as far or scatter seeds as widely. The team built an index to measure how much <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-play-a-much-bigger-role-in-seed-dispersal-than-we-thought/">seed dispersal</a> had been disrupted and compared that to how much carbon forests in those areas could store.



“It was a big task to bring data from thousands of field studies together into a map of the disruption of seed dispersal,” Fricke said. “But it lets us go beyond just asking what animals are there to actually quantifying the ecological roles those animals are playing and understanding how human pressures affect them.”



What they found was striking. Forests lost 1.8 metric tons of carbon per hectare yearly where seed-dispersing animals had declined. That’s a 57 percent drop in regrowth potential.



The finding that disrupted seed dispersal leads to a fourfold drop in carbon absorption highlights seed dispersers as a key driver of tropical forest carbon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animals-make-climate-solutions-work">Animals make climate solutions work</h2>



Not all forests are equally positioned for regrowth. The team found that some landscapes are more promising than others - especially those near intact forests or with lots of tree cover. 



In these places, animal populations are more stable, which helps forests bounce back naturally.



“In the discussion around planting trees versus allowing trees to regrow naturally, regrowth is basically free, whereas planting trees costs money, and it also leads to less diverse forests,” said Professor César Terrer.



“With these results… we can understand where natural regrowth can happen effectively because there are animals planting the seeds for free.”



This research adds a new layer to climate modeling. If seed-dispersing animals are missing, regrowth estimates may be too optimistic. If animals are thriving, some areas may have more regrowth potential than previously thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-forests-means-saving-animals">Saving forests means saving animals</h2>



The researchers suggest several ways to support seed-dispersing animals. These include restoring habitats, building wildlife corridors, and limiting activities like wildlife trade. 



In some cases, reintroducing missing species or planting trees that attract them could help restore these lost relationships.



It’s also about getting the science right. Future studies may examine whether the decline in tropical forests’ carbon-absorbing power is linked more to extreme weather or to the loss of these animal-plant partnerships.



“Forests provide a huge climate subsidy by sequestering about a third of all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-faces-hidden-mechanical-stress-from-carbon-emissions/">human carbon emissions</a>,” Terrer said. “Tropical forests are by far the most important carbon sink globally, but in the last few decades, their ability to sequester carbon has been declining."



The team will next investigate whether the decline is driven more by extreme droughts and fires or by reduced animal seed dispersal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-losing-wildlife-worsens-warming">Losing wildlife worsens warming</h2>



Ultimately, the findings point to a deeper truth. Climate and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diverse-forests-are-more-resilient-and-productive/">biodiversity</a> aren't separate problems - they're intertwined.



“It’s been clear that climate change threatens biodiversity, and now this study shows how biodiversity losses can exacerbate climate change,” said Fricke. “These are challenges we need to tackle in tandem."



“When we lose our animals, we’re losing the ecological infrastructure that keeps our tropical forests healthy and resilient."



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2500951122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Forests rely on animals to help fight climate change

We hear a lot about how climate change affects animals...

Farmers lose billions of dollars each year to diseases that clog a plant’s veins and leave entire fields limp. New work from UC, Davis shows that a carefully edited immune sensor can help crops recognize some of the bacteria behind those losses - a threat that's growing as the climate warms.



The <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41477-025-02049-y">discovery</a> builds on decades of study into how plants notice invaders and trigger internal alarms. It also highlights a fast moving molecular arms race, because microbes constantly tweak the proteins on their surface to slip past detection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rebuilding-crop-disease-defenses">Rebuilding crop disease defenses</h2>



A team led by Gitta Coaker, a plant disease expert at <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Davis</a>, found that natural versions of a plant sensor called FLS2 can detect one piece of a bacterial protein - but often miss similar ones.



By studying FLS2 genes from different plant species, they identified specific building blocks - or amino acids - that affect how well the sensor recognizes threats. 



When they changed just 13 of these in a crop-friendly version, the sensor regained its ability to detect bacteria it had previously overlooked.



“We were able to resurrect a defeated receptor - one where the pathogen has won - and enable the plant to have a chance to resist infection in a much more targeted and precise way,” said Coaker. 



She sees the strategy as a template for updating other sensors that guard against diverse pests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sensor-targets-bacterial-tail">Sensor targets bacterial tail</h2>



Many plants use FLS2 to detect a small piece of a bacterial tail protein called <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-bacteria-help-plants-balance-growth-and-immunity/">flagellin</a>. This 22-amino-acid piece, known as flg22, triggers the plant’s immune system.



When FLS2 recognizes flg22, it sets off a strong defense response, flooding plant cells with calcium and reactive oxygen to fight off the bacteria.



But if bacteria make small changes to the end of flg22, the sensor may not detect them. That allows the bacteria to spread through the plant’s water-carrying tissue. The result is bacterial wilt - a fast-moving disease that can wipe out tomato or potato plants almost overnight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-guides-plant-edits">AI guides plant edits</h2>



To predict which edits would matter most, the team turned to AlphaFold, an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-is-taking-scientific-discovery-from-decades-to-minutes/">AI model</a> that guesses protein shapes to near-atomic detail. The software flagged residues on FLS2’s concave surface that should touch the tricky flg22 variants.



Those predictions steered the lab work, trimming months of trial and error from the project. Matching computer output with greenhouse assays confirmed that the redesigned receptor could sense multiple strains at nanomolar peptide doses.



Importantly, the new sensor left normal growth untouched, a key point for breeders wary of yield penalties. The study shows that AI can make molecular tinkering far less of a guessing game.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reprogramming-crop-disease-defense">Reprogramming crop disease defense</h2>



Plants cannot produce <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-after-vaccination-improves-antibody-levels/">antibodies</a> on demand, so boosting pattern recognition is their safest bet. Replacing a handful of residues acts like a firmware update, expanding what the cell sees without rewriting the entire gene.



In one test, tomato leaves expressing the edited receptor produced a reactive oxygen burst 20 times stronger than controls when exposed to Ralstonia peptides. Disease symptoms dropped sharply in subsequent challenge assays.



“This approach could be a path toward broad-spectrum resistance that doesn’t rely on chemical sprays,” said Coaker. She added that farmers need options that fit current management budgets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blocking-bacteria-at-the-root">Blocking bacteria at the root</h2>



Ralstonia solanacearum is one of the world’s most damaging crop diseases, capable of infecting over 200 plant species. It causes wilt and brown rot, leading to more than $1 billion in global losses each year.



Once inside, the bacteria clog water vessels, blocking sprays and antibiotics from reaching the infection. The best defense is early detection at the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-roots-could-be-key-to-fighting-climate-change/">root</a>, where the plant’s immune system can still recognize the invader.



To help crops do that, scientists are using CRISPR to make tiny edits - just a few genetic “spelling changes” - in immune receptor genes. These edits don’t add any foreign DNA and are treated like traditional breeding in countries such as the U.S.



By combining these enhanced receptors with other resistance genes, plant breeders may slow the rise of new, harder-to-stop bacterial strains. This could reduce the need for fungicides and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-antibiotics-detected-in-hundreds-of-rivers-worldwide/">antibiotics</a>, which would also help protect soil and water.



Small-scale farmers, especially in warm regions where tomatoes, peppers, and eggplants are dietary staples, could benefit the most. Healthier crops mean more reliable income and better food security for their communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-plant-immunity">Future of plant immunity</h2>



Coaker’s group is now training machine learning models to rank other receptors for editability. 



Early simulations suggest that tweaking as few as eight residues can widen perception for several unrelated microbial patterns.



If that holds up, crop scientists could one day scan whole pathogen genomes in silico and pre-test receptor updates before a disease outbreak ever starts.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41477-025-02049-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Plants</a>.



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Small DNA tweak protects plants from devastating crop disease

Farmers lose billions of dollars each year to diseases that...

A recent study has revealed that immersion in virtual reality (VR) nature scenes can significantly ease the symptoms of chronic pain. 



The strongest benefits appeared in participants who felt deeply present during the experience, enhancing comfort and reducing pain sensitivity effectively over time.



The research, led by the University of Exeter, involved an immersive 360-degree <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-nature-conservation-day-2025-a-healthy-future-for-all/">nature</a> films through VR against standard 2D video images. VR proved almost twice as effective in reducing pain perception.



Chronic pain, which lasts for more than three months, can be challenging to treat. The researchers simulated this condition in healthy participants. 



The experts discovered that VR nature scenes produced pain-relieving effects similar to painkillers. These effects persisted for at least five minutes after the VR experience ended.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-virtual-reality-and-chronic-pain">Virtual reality and chronic pain</h2>



The study was led by Dr. Sam Hughes, senior lecturer in pain neuroscience at the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Exeter</a>. 



“We’ve seen a growing body of evidence show that exposure to nature can help reduce short term, everyday pain, but there has been less research into how this might work for people living with chronic or longer-term pain,” said Dr. Hughes.



“Also, not everyone is able to get out for walks in nature, particularly those living with long term health conditions like chronic pain. Our study is the first to look at the effect of prolonged exposure to a virtual reality nature scene on symptoms seen during long term pain sensitivity.



According to Dr. Hughes, the results suggest that immersive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-innovation-takes-the-lead-in-environmental-action/">nature</a> experiences can reduce the development of this pain sensitivity through an enhanced sense of presence and through harnessing the brains in-built pain suppression systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-virtual-nature-scenes-as-therapy">Virtual nature scenes as therapy</h2>



The study, funded by the Academy of Medical Sciences, involved 29 healthy participants. The researchers applied pain to the forearm using electric shocks and then measured pain changes over a 50-minute period. 



Participants developed pain sensitivity similar to nerve pain in the absence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-environment-day-2025-plastic-pollution-is-choking-our-planet/">nature</a> scenes. On a separate visit, the same participants experienced a 45-minute VR nature session featuring the waterfalls of Oregon. 



The scene was selected to enhance therapeutic outcomes. On another occasion, participants viewed the same nature scenes on a 2D screen for comparison.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feeling-present-in-vr-lowers-pain">Feeling present in VR lowers pain</h2>



The participants also completed questionnaires about their pain experience and how present they felt in each scenario. Additional visits included MRI brain scans at the University of Exeter’s Mireille Gillings Neuroimaging Centre. 



Here, researchers induced ongoing pain using a cold gel and examined how participants’ brains responded.



The immersive VR experience significantly reduced the spread and intensity of pain sensitivity. These benefits lasted through the entire 45-minute session. Participants who felt more present during the VR experience reported greater pain relief.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-virtual-nature-scenes-work">Why virtual nature scenes work</h2>



The brain scans revealed that participants with stronger connections in brain regions regulating pain experienced less discomfort. VR nature scenes altered the way pain signals travel in the brain and spinal cord, especially for chronic pain conditions.



“We think VR has a particularly strong effect on reducing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nature-has-its-own-internet-and-were-only-beginning-to-understand-it/">experience</a> of pain because it’s so immersive. It really created that feeling of being present in nature - and we found the pain - reducing effect was greatest in people for whom that perception was strongest," said Dr. Sonia Medina.



"We hope our study leads to more research to investigate further how exposure to nature effects our pain responses, so we could one day see nature scenes incorporated into ways of reducing pain for people in settings like care homes or hospitals."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-vr-to-treat-chronic-pain">Using VR to treat chronic pain </h2>



The findings indicate that VR-based nature experiences could become part of pain management strategies. Future research will explore how this technology could benefit people living with chronic pain, especially those unable to access outdoor environments. 



Researchers hope these immersive experiences can complement existing therapies, improve quality of life, and offer accessible solutions for patients in hospitals, care homes, and other clinical settings where natural outdoor exposure is limited.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.lww.com/pain/abstract/9900/immersion_in_nature_through_virtual_reality.970.aspx" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pain</a>.



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Virtual nature scenes provide relief from chronic pain

A recent study has revealed that immersion in virtual reality...

More people in the United States now smoke cannabis every day than drink alcohol, with about 17.7 million daily or near daily users recorded in the 2022 <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38775461/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Survey on Drug Use and Health</a>. 



That shift adds urgency to questions about what long term, high frequency use might be doing to the body.



Researchers from the University of California San Diego (<a href="https://ucsd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCSD</a>) followed more than 45,000 patients. They found that people diagnosed with cannabis use disorder (<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538131/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CUD</a>) were 3.25 times more likely to develop oral cancer within five years than those without the disorder. 



The elevated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-use-in-any-form-directly-linked-to-significant-risk-of-heart-damage/">risk</a> held even after accounting for age, sex, body mass index, and tobacco smoking.



<a href="https://profiles.ucsd.edu/raphael.cuomo" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Raphael E. Cuomo, Ph.D.</a>, an associate professor in the Department of Anesthesiology at UC San Diego School of Medicine and member of the <a href="https://moorescancercenter.ucsd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Moores Cancer Center</a>, led the analysis. 



He points out that the findings dovetail with toxicology data showing cannabis smoke carries many of the same chemicals blamed for tobacco related malignancies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cannabis-use-linked-to-oral-cancer">Cannabis use linked to oral cancer</h2>



Legalization has widened access to cannabis, yet roughly <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16854249/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">three-in-ten</a> regular users meet criteria for the disorder, a clinical diagnosis that signals problematic use. 



Unlike casual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/legal-access-to-cannabis-is-proving-to-be-good-for-both-people-and-society/">consumption</a>, CUD typically involves near daily smoking, deeper inhalation, and higher potency products that bathe oral tissues in combustion by products.



At the same time, the <a href="https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/oral-cavity-and-oropharyngeal-cancer/about/key-statistics.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Cancer Society</a> estimates about 59,660 Americans will be told they have cancers of the mouth or throat in 2025. 



Smoking remains a leading risk factor, but human papillomavirus (<a href="https://www.cdc.gov/hpv/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HPV</a>), heavy drinking, and now cannabis may add new layers to that risk profile.



Oral tumors often begin as painless spots on the lip or tongue, making early detection tricky. By linking CUD and tumor incidence in electronic health records, the <a href="https://ucsd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC San Diego</a> team offers clinicians a fresh flag for vigilance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cannabis-raises-cancer-risk">Cannabis raises cancer risk</h2>



The study drew data from six academic medical centers between 2012 and 2019, then tracked each participant for five years. 



Only 2.1 percent developed CUD, yet that small group accounted for nearly a third of the oral cancer diagnoses observed.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smoking-related-deaths-will-surge-by-2030/">Tobacco smokers</a> in the cohort already faced extra danger, but those who both smoked cigarettes and had CUD were six times more likely to be diagnosed than smokers without CUD. 



Because the cannabis signal persisted inside the smoking subgroup, Cuomo’s team suspects mechanisms beyond simple smoke exposure.



The researchers also noted that women, older age, and higher body mass index appeared to slightly temper risk, echoing patterns seen with tobacco related oral cancers. However, those demographic buffers did not erase the impact of CUD.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smoke-harms-mouth-tissue">Smoke harms mouth tissue</h2>



Laboratory <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18062674/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">analyses</a> show that marijuana smoke contains hundreds of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (<a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2014-03/documents/pahs_factsheet_cdc_2013.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PAHs</a>), benzene, and ammonia, many at concentrations equal to or higher than tobacco sidestream smoke. Several of these compounds directly damage DNA in epithelial cells lining the mouth.



A detailed chemical fingerprint published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-63120-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">2020</a> cataloged 2,575 distinct compounds in mainstream cannabis smoke, 110 of which are known human toxicants. 



Such particle rich aerosols stick to mucosal surfaces, extending contact time between carcinogens and target cells.



Histology from habitual marijuana smokers has revealed <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9719080/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dysplasia</a> and other precancerous changes in bronchial tissue even when tobacco is absent. Those cellular alterations mirror the earliest steps seen on the path to malignancy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cannabis-affects-cancer-defense">Cannabis affects cancer defense</h2>



Tetrahydrocannabinol (<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/tetrahydrocannabinol" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">THC</a>), the main psychoactive molecule in cannabis, can impair <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18040791/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">immune suppression</a> pathways that normally patrol for rogue cells. Less immune surveillance could give mutated oral cells a head start toward tumor formation.



Edible or vaporized products bypass the oral cavity, yet frequent users often combine delivery methods, so risk patterns for noncombustible forms remain unclear. 



Future studies that separate smoke exposure from total THC dose may untangle these variables.



Another unknown is whether the rising average potency of commercial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-potency-why-you-shouldnt-trust-the-label/">cannabis</a> accelerates carcinogen uptake or immune effects. 



Public laboratories have only begun to simulate how today’s 25 percent THC flower compares with the 4 percent material studied decades ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-daily-users-face-big-risk">Daily users face big risk</h2>



People with CUD commonly face co-occurring mental health challenges, alcohol misuse, and lower participation in preventive dental care. These overlapping factors could compound cancer risk and delay diagnosis.



Socioeconomic gaps may also play a role, because uninsured adults are less likely to receive routine oral examinations. Community clinics that integrate substance use counseling with oral screenings could bridge that divide.



For clinicians, the takeaway is straightforward. When a patient meets criteria for CUD, adding a quick inspection of the mouth and a referral to dentistry costs little but may spot trouble early.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heavy-cannabis-harms-oral-health">Heavy cannabis harms oral health</h2>



Cannabis is not just a milder cousin of tobacco, its smoke delivers a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-extract-cbd-proven-highly-effective-at-killing-mosquitoes/">complex chemical load</a> with measurable impacts on human tissue. 



The UC San Diego study reminds us that heavy, prolonged use carries consequences that legalization debates often overlook.



Policy makers weighing retail expansion should ensure that cancer prevention messaging keeps pace with marketing. Clear warnings, similar to those on cigarette packs, could help users make informed choices.



For now, anyone lighting up daily can lower potential harm by switching to noncombustible products, spacing out sessions, and keeping regular dental check ups. 



Researchers will continue probing dose, delivery, and biology, but prudence starts with individual habits.



“Cannabis smoke contains many of the same carcinogenic compounds found in tobacco smoke, which have known damaging effects on the epithelial tissue that lines the mouth,” noted Cuomo. 



Staying aware of that simple fact may be the first step toward safer choices.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211335525002244" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Preventive Medicine Reports</a>.



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Cannabis users face a significantly higher oral cancer risk, similar to cigarette smokers

More people in the United States now smoke cannabis every...

Sea urchins don’t understand predators the way we do. They have no brains, no hearts - just raw instinct. When a sunflower sea star approaches, they don’t need complex reasoning to sense danger - they simply steer clear.



This is the conclusion of a new study that examined how sunflower sea stars affect sea urchin behavior. The research was conducted by ecologists and undergraduates at the <a href="https://www.universityofcalifornia.edu/">University of California</a>, Santa Cruz.



The team set out to understand whether these massive, many-armed sea stars could help protect kelp forests by simply being present.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sea-stars-create-a-landscape-of-fear">Sea stars create a landscape of fear</h2>



The team from UC Santa Cruz conducted the experiment off the coast of Sitka, Alaska, where local sea urchins have wiped out once-thriving kelp forests, turning them into underwater deserts.



The students, trained in scientific diving through the university’s BIOE 159 Marine Ecology Field Quarter, placed cages on the ocean floor. Some held <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sunflower-sea-stars-are-nearly-extinct-but-scientists-are-growing-them/">sunflower sea stars</a> (Pycnopodia helianthoides). Others were left empty. 



Kelp blades were tied near each cage to act as bait. The question was simple: Would sea urchins avoid the kelp if a sunflower sea star was nearby?



After just 24 hours, the answer was clear. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-red-sea-urchins-will-tolerate-climate-change-better-than-others/">Red sea urchins</a> kept their distance - about six feet, on average - from cages containing the sea stars. In contrast, green sea urchins, also present in the area, showed no hesitation and munched through the kelp.



“We show that the sea stars create a ‘landscape of fear’ among red sea urchins in degraded urchin barrens that reduces grazing on kelp,” said Kristy Kroeker, professor of ecology and evolutionary biology at UC Santa Cruz. 



“These are very hungry urchins that are dissuaded enough by the scent of a sea star to deter grazing on kelp forests, which is promising for thinking about their role in kelp-forest recovery.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-kelp-forests-matter">Why kelp forests matter</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/kelp-forests-in-crisis-how-toxic-turf-algae-are-taking-over/">Kelp forests</a> aren’t just scenery. They provide critical shelter and breeding grounds for thousands of marine species, including commercially valuable ones like abalone and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pacific-rockfish-give-clues-about-the-genetic-basis-of-longevity/">rockfish</a>. 



They’re also a financial powerhouse, contributing an estimated $500 billion each year to the global economy. Kelp is used in everything from pharmaceuticals and cosmetics to food products like salad dressings and toothpaste.



But around 2013, something changed. A wasting disease swept through populations of sunflower sea stars, pushing them to local extinction along much of the west coast. 



At the same time, huge sections of kelp forest disappeared, especially in California and Oregon. Since then, neither the sea stars nor the kelp have made a full comeback.



That’s raised big questions. Are sea stars a key part of keeping urchin populations in check? Could bringing them back help kelp forests recover?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-students-led-the-research">Students led the research </h2>



This study didn’t come from a high-budget lab. It came from a hands-on field course that takes students into real-world research environments. 



In past years, the course has brought students to the Gulf of California in Mexico and to Moorea in French Polynesia. This time, they ended up in the chilly waters of Alaska.



“I feel very grateful to have had the privilege of working on this study alongside my peers,” said Rae Mancuso, the study’s lead author. 



“Participating in the entire process, from diving to scientific writing, was exciting and impactful as an undergraduate student. I hope the findings from this field experiment contribute in some way to the restoration of our all-important kelp forests.”



The students worked with faculty to design the experiment and set it up across three locations in urchin-dominated zones. They built pairs of cages, spaced about 60 to 100 feet apart, and monitored the urchin activity closely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sea-stars-scaring-off-sea-urchins">Sea stars scaring off sea urchins </h2>



Although the sea stars only deterred red sea urchins - not the green ones - researchers say it’s a promising lead. Simply putting sea stars in the area (rather than trying to remove urchins by hand) could help restore balance to the ecosystem.



Even better, this strategy might be less labor-intensive than current methods, which often require divers to manually cull urchin populations.



The researchers are also curious whether sunflower sea stars might scare off <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gray-whales-struggle-as-purple-sea-urchins-destroy-kelp-forests/">purple sea urchins</a>, the worst kelp destroyers in California. That part is still unclear.



“My educated guess is that they will deter purple urchin grazing as well, but it’s a question of how much and for how long,” Kroeker said. 



“There are many unknowns that need to be addressed and many steps that need to be taken between our results and the reintroduction of Pycnopodia for kelp-forest recovery.”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2025.0949">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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'Terrifying' sea stars could be key to kelp forest recovery

Sea urchins don’t understand predators the way we do. They...

When trees topple into peat bogs or riverbeds, a slow alchemy begins. Hemmed in by mud, deprived of oxygen, and nudged along by microbes, the trunks gradually darken, densify, and mineralize. 



Sometimes, centuries later, they emerge as prized “ancient buried wood” that resists rot and boasts a marble-like sheen.



An international group of materials scientists recently wondered: Could that natural upgrade be coaxed to happen on the lab bench - quickly, cleanly, and at industrial scale?



The answer is BioStrong Wood, a timber strengthened with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-fungi-species-are-threatened-with-extinction/">fungus</a> and heat, whose tensile strength now outmuscles common SAE 304 stainless steel while weighing far less.



The project was a collaboration between the <a href="https://www.ehu.eus/en/en-home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of the Basque Country</a> (EHU), <a href="https://en.whu.edu.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wuhan University</a>, and the Chinese Academy of Sciences.



The outcome, the experts argue, is not merely a clever composite but a glimpse of circular, sustainable materials which could replace the non‑renewable and highly polluting materials on which our economy is based.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wood-still-matters">Why wood still matters</h2>



Humans have used wood for millennia, yet most high‑performance engineering still defaults to steel, aluminum, or petro‑derived plastics.



Wood’s natural drawbacks - porosity, moisture absorption, and inconsistency - confine its use to beams and boards, not precision-engineered parts.



However, study co-author Professor Erlantz Lizundia sees untapped potential: “Wood is one of the most accessible biological materials, but outside its conventional use, it is barely being explored for high‑performance applications.”&nbsp;



Taming flaws could let designers replace fossil-heavy materials with a climate-friendly, carbon-storing feedstock that grows on trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wood-uses-fungus-and-geology">Wood uses fungus and geology</h2>



Nature already offers a recipe. In ancient buried wood, modest heat and pressure, along with microbial enzymes, partially break down <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/researchers-create-antimicrobial-substances-using-lignin-and-plant-wastes/">lignin</a> - the amorphous polymer that cements cellulose fibers. 



This allows the remaining molecules to repolymerize into a tighter, hydrophobic network. The Basque-Chinese team accelerated that evolution in three deliberate steps:



<ol start="1" class="wp-block-list">
<li>Selective fungal digestion - Planks of fast‑growing poplar and radiata pine were inoculated with white‑rot fungi. Over several days the microbes chewed specific ether bonds in lignin, loosening the microstructure while leaving the strong cellulose framework largely intact.</li>



<li>Chemical tuning - A mild alkaline wash halted fungal growth and removed low‑molecular‑weight residues, setting the stage for new crosslinks.</li>



<li>Hot pressing under high pressure - Boards were stacked and compressed at temperatures above 356 °F (180 °C). Cell walls collapsed, voids vanished, and fragmented lignin pieces fused into fresh carbon–carbon bonds, welding the lumber into a dense, horn-like slab.</li>
</ol>



This hybrid bio‑thermo‑mechanical route preserves up to 85 percent of the original mass - far higher than acid‑delignified “super woods” - and requires little solvent or energy beyond the press cycle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wood-withstands-extreme-stress">Wood withstands extreme stress</h2>



Mechanical trials show why the researchers are excited. BioStrong Wood survives tensile stresses above 530 MPa - edging out stainless steel’s typical 520 MPa - and absorbs over eleven times more energy before fracturing than raw wood.



Flexural tests reveal a threefold jump in bending strength. Thermal cycling from –321 °F (–196 °C) to 248 °F (120 °C) hardly alters its stiffness, and water contact angles near 140° keep moisture at bay. In accelerated weathering chambers, samples showed negligible swelling or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-technology-can-detect-plant-diseases-from-above/">mildew</a>. 



Behind the numbers lies a reengineered microarchitecture. X‑ray diffraction indicates cellulose crystallinity rises during pressing, while scanning electron microscopy shows near‑complete elimination of pores.



Reformed lignin acts like a molecular epoxy, locking cellulose sheets together and sealing pathways for water or oxygen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-capture-in-every-plank">Carbon capture in every plank</h2>



Strength is only half the story; so is sustainability. Using standard life-cycle assessment protocols, the authors calculate that each 2.2 lbs of BioStrong Wood sequesters roughly 2.6 lbs of CO₂ net, even after accounting for energy, chemicals, and fungal cultivation.



The negative footprint contrasts starkly with steel (4.2 lbs CO₂ emitted per 2.2 lbs produced) or glass-fiber composites (~11 lbs CO₂ per 2.2 lbs).



Techno-economic analysis pegs potential production costs near ¥2 CNY (≈ US $0.30) per 2.2 lbs - dramatically cheaper than aerospace polymers and competitive with plywood.



“Our results show that it is possible to obtain materials with a very high mechanical performance and which are, in turn, economically viable and offer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-capture-technology-faces-uncertainty-despite-heavy-investment/">carbon capture</a> capabilities,” noted Professor Lizundia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-uses-for-fungus-wood">Future uses for fungus wood</h2>



Early prototypes hint at diverse uses, from vehicle panels to sports equipment cores and impact-resistant phone cases. 



They could also serve as exposed beams with fossil-wood aesthetics or cryogenic insulation supports due to thermal-shock resistance.



Because the process accepts multiple softwood and hardwood species, regional mills could tap local forestry residues instead of importing steel rebar or petrochemical resin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-lab-to-lumberyard">From lab to lumberyard</h2>



Scaling will demand continuous‑press technology, rapid fungal bioreactors, and strict quality control to homogenize input lumber. 



Building codes require researchers to characterize fire behavior, often a stumbling block for dense woods.



End‑of‑life recycling pathways, perhaps via controlled pyrolysis to biochar, also need definition. 



The researchers are already testing other fungal strains and shorter incubation times to cut lead time from days to hours.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wood-joins-the-big-leagues">Wood joins the big leagues</h2>



The BioStrong Wood story demonstrates a broader shift. Engineers are revisiting biological feedstocks not just for novelty, but to replace emissions-heavy incumbents at the structural level.



Whether it is mycelium foams, bacterial cellulose films or now fungus toughened wood, the toolkit of renewable high‑performance materials including wood is expanding. 



This study shows that by letting nature handle part of the chemistry, scientists can leapfrog traditional limits of wood. That opens the door to steel‑class strength without the steel‑class carbon bill.



If trials succeed, pallet-bound planks could soon top <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dozens-of-coastal-skyscrapers-in-miami-are-sinking/">skyscrapers</a> or rocket fairings. Even in advanced engineering, well-crafted wood can still compete with metal.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.ady0183" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Scientists invented a process that makes wood stronger than steel

When trees topple into peat bogs or riverbeds, a slow...

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