Sanjana Gajbhiye is an experienced science writer and researcher. She holds a Master of Technology degree in Bioengineering and Biomedical Engineering from the prestigious Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Jodhpur.

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She has been featured in national publications and blogs and runs a website dedicated to providing tips for beginner freelance writers.
Kay is passionate about living a more sustainable and eco-friendly lifestyle and loves writing for Earth.com.

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At Earth.com, Jordan explores the latest scientific findings and shares stories that illuminate the beauty and intricacies of our planet. Covering topics ranging from environmental science to sustainable practices, Jordan’s articles aim to spark curiosity and foster a deeper connection to the natural world.

Learn more about Jordan Joseph <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/jordan-joseph/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">here</a>.

Jordan Joseph

As a serial entrepreneur, Eric Ralls has long aspired to merge technology with a love for nature and our planet. Founder at Earth.com, EarthSnap, PlantSnap, redOrbit.  "My goal has always been to bring people back to nature, to help them realize that humanity is a part of nature, not 'apart' from nature," says <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Eric Ralls</a>, Founder and CEO of EarthSnap. "Homosapiens are only one species out of over 8 million species of life with whom we share this planet. Yet humanity treats the earth like it is ours alone to do with as we please, even though we've only been here for a few hundred thousand years out of the 3.5 billion years that this beautiful blue marble has been zipping through the universe."
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&nbsp;

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In my role as Chief News Editor, I strive to publish studies that are not only fascinating, but also informative. I am grateful for the opportunity to share urgent climate news with Earth.com readers all over the world. 

In order to address the greatest environmental challenge of our lifetime, we must first understand what we are up against. 

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Andrei Ionescu is a Staff Writer at Earth.com, covering the latest scientific discoveries in fields including health &amp; medicine, climate science, biology &amp; evolution, paleontology, astrophysics, chemistry, and geology. He holds a PhD from the University of Padua, Italy, and conducted extensive interdisciplinary research at the intersection of the sciences and the humanities at universities in various countries, which resulted in publications at Bloomsbury, Johns Hopkins University Press, and Taylor &amp; Francis.
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I am a biologist at heart, and interested in all aspects of the natural world. I studied a BSc in Zoology and Botany at the University of Cape Town in South Africa, and then received my PhD in Zoology at the same institution. I have subsequently spent much of my life teaching others about the fascinating natural world we have inherited. I am lucky enough to live in South Africa, where wildlife and wild places still abound. 

Writing for Earth.com is a privilege as it enables me to keep in touch with the latest research trends while also being able to inform others about the amazing science currently being done in the various fields of biology.

Alison Bosman

The ocean is a vast and mysterious world, teeming with life that often remains hidden from human eyes. Occasionally, however, nature reveals its secrets in breathtaking ways. 



This was recently the case in Carmel Bay off the central coast of California, where hundreds of dolphins were seen leaping and gliding together. 



Drone footage captured across the bay reveals a miles-long cluster of dolphins, forming what experts call a "super pod" of more than 1,500 animals. 



These weren’t just any dolphins - they were Risso’s dolphins, a species known for their stocky bodies, bulbous heads, and preference for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lonely-dolphin-in-the-baltic-sea-is-constantly-talking/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">smaller groups</a>.



Typically traveling in pods of 10 to 30, their sudden appearance in such large numbers was an unusual and captivating sight, drawing attention from scientists and enthusiasts alike.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dolphins-create-a-super-pod">Dolphins create a super pod</h2>



Captain Evan Brodsky with the <a href="https://montereybaywhalewatch.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monterey Bay Whale Watch</a> was among those fortunate enough to witness the spectacle. He captured the drone footage of the event, which took place on a Friday morning.



"They were on the horizon I feel like as far as I could see," he said. The sheer scale of the gathering was overwhelming, even for someone accustomed to observing marine life.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="7SSuI0ftF5-4296162-12187" type="single"]</div>



Brodsky and his team had set out that day in search of gray whales, but their plans were quickly overshadowed by the unexpected arrival of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fentanyl-discovered-in-dolphins-what-it-means-for-marine-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dolphins</a>. From their 20-foot inflatable boat, they watched mesmerized as the dolphins jumped out of the water with fluid and graceful movements.



These creatures, which can weigh up to 1,100 pounds and grow as long as 13 feet, seemed to be putting on a show, peeking around as they leaped into the air. Their playful behavior added to the spectacle of the dolphin super pod, creating a scene that felt almost otherworldly in its beauty and energy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dolphins-at-play-a-celebration-of-life">Dolphins at play: A celebration of life</h2>



Colleen Talty, a marine biologist who joined the trip to track the annual migration of gray whales, described the scene as "pretty amazing."



She was particularly struck by the sheer number of dolphins cavorting all around their boat. Some of them swam at the front of the vessel, using the waves created by its movement to propel themselves forward - a behavior known as bow riding.



"They were just having a great time. So they were breaching everywhere... tail slapping, coming right over to the boat. They looked like they were having a big party," said Talty.



The mix of adult and juvenile <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-found-in-dolphin-breath/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dolphins</a> suggested that several smaller pods had come together, likely traveling south. While such large gatherings have been observed before, they are not common - making this sighting even more remarkable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-features-of-the-monterey-coastline">Features of the Monterey coastline</h2>



The Monterey coastline played a significant role in making this encounter possible. Its unique underwater features, including a deep submarine canyon, create conditions that allow dolphins to swim much closer to shore than they might elsewhere along the California coast. 



According to Talty, this makes the area particularly ideal for spotting these marine mammals.



The team initially underestimated the size of the super pod, believing it consisted of only several hundred dolphins. It wasn’t until they launched the drone that the true scale became apparent. 



"Once we put the drone up, I was just blown away. I kept saying, 'Look at my screen. Look at my screen. Look how many there are,'" noted Brodsky. "It just blows my mind every time. It never gets old."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-playful-dolphins-in-the-super-pod">Playful dolphins in the super pod </h2>



One of the most memorable moments of the day came when Talty stood at the front of the boat and noticed dolphins turning on their sides to look directly at her. 



These curious <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pebanista-yacuruna-giant-dolphin-species-discovered-peru-amazon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a> seemed as interested in the humans as the humans were in them. Their playful behavior and apparent curiosity created a sense of connection between the two species - a reminder of the shared bond between all living beings.



As the dolphins continued to interact with the boat, the team made sure to drive carefully, avoiding any sudden movements that might harm the animals. 



"You don't want to make any abrasive maneuvers and potentially injure an animal. That's of course the last thing you ever want to do," Brodsky said. 



Instead, the team cruised alongside the dolphins, savoring the moment. "It was an incredible experience," he concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-s-grand-performance">Nature’s grand performance</h2>



This remarkable encounter with a dolphin super pod serves as a powerful reminder of the wonders of the natural world. For those lucky enough to witness such an event, it’s an experience that will stay with them forever.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-dolphins-who-play-with-others-become-successful-adults/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dolphins</a>’ playful antics and the sheer scale of their gathering highlighted the beauty and complexity of marine life, leaving an indelible mark on everyone present.



Moments like these also emphasize the importance of preserving the ocean and its inhabitants. As human activity continues to impact marine ecosystems, events like the Carmel Bay super pod remind us of what's at stake.



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'Super pod' of over 1,500 dolphins captured in stunning drone footage

The ocean is a vast and mysterious world, teeming with...

A new study reveals that rat infestations in many cities worldwide are on the rise, with Washington, D.C. emerging as the biggest hotspot. 



The study, which was focused on rat sighting reports from 16 global cities, attributes the increasing rat populations to warming temperatures, urbanization, and other human activities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rat-sightings-on-the-rise">Rat sightings on the rise</h2>



The researchers conducted a first-of-its-kind analysis using publicly submitted rat complaint data. They discovered that in 11 of the 16 cities analyzed, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rats-have-a-very-complex-social-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rat</a> sightings have increased in recent years. 



Based on individual city trends, Washington D.C. led the pack, followed by San Francisco, Toronto, New York City, and Amsterdam. According to the study, the rat reporting trend in Washington D.C. was three times greater than that of Boston. 



Only three cities - New Orleans, Louisville, and Tokyo - experienced significant decreases in rat reports, with New Orleans showing the largest drop. The experts suggest that New Orleans’ strategies could serve as a model for other cities seeking to control rat populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-drivers-of-rat-population-growth">Key drivers of rat population growth </h2>



The research team performed statistical analyses of rat sighting reports and concluded that a little over 40% of the rising trend is due to warming temperatures. 



This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rapid-surge-in-global-warming-may-have-an-unexpected-source/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a> is primarily a result of burning coal, oil, and natural gas, which leads to milder winters and longer foraging periods for rats. 



Study lead author Jonathan Richardson, a biologist at the <a href="https://www.richmond.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Richmond</a>, explained the mechanism.



“We're seeing these increasing trends in rats in cities that are warming the fastest, probably because this is a small mammal that has physiological challenges in the cold weather months,” said Richardson.&nbsp;



“If we're warming the climate and winter starts a week or two later and spring arrives a week or two earlier, that's one, two, maybe even three or four weeks across the entire year where those rats can be above ground foraging, acquiring more food and maybe squeezing out one or two more reproductive cycles.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urbanization-and-higher-population-density">Urbanization and higher population density </h2>



Even a few extra weeks of activity can have a dramatic effect, given that female rats can produce a litter every month. With each litter consisting of eight to 16 pups, this additional time significantly accelerates population growth.



In addition to the effects of warming, the study identified increased <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urbanization-is-a-threat-to-78-of-the-worlds-bird-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urbanization</a> and higher population densities as major factors. Rats thrive in built environments where food waste is abundant and human activity creates numerous shelters.&nbsp;



The experts note that these conditions allow rats to flourish in areas where people and their refuse provide a constant source of sustenance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rats-nature-s-ultimate-urban-survivors">Rats: Nature’s ultimate urban survivors</h2>



Rats have evolved to be remarkably adaptive in urban settings. New York City rat czar Kathleen Corradi stated during a conference that the rat is the third most successful mammal behind humans and house mice. So it evolved and engineered to live alongside us.&nbsp;



“They followed humans, Homo sapiens, across the continents and are in every single continent except Antarctica. So it's considered a wicked problem.”



Their ability to adapt and survive in close proximity to humans explains why rat populations are expanding even as cities implement various control measures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consequences-of-rising-rat-populations">Consequences of rising rat populations</h2>



While rats are undeniably adaptable, their increasing numbers pose serious risks. When rodent populations soar, public health and urban infrastructure can suffer. 



"When rodent populations are high, people get sick, motor vehicles become disabled, mental health declines, fires are started and foods fouled," said Houston rat expert Michael Parsons, who was not involved in the study.



This statement captures the multifaceted impact of rat infestations. High rat populations can lead to increased transmission of diseases, disruption of transportation systems, and other societal challenges. 



People are understandably disturbed by rats, primarily due to an instinctive fear of creatures that can transmit disease.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quantifying-city-rats">Quantifying city rats</h2>



Rats are notoriously difficult to count accurately due to their secretive and elusive nature. The study did not count rats directly; instead, it analyzed rat sighting complaints submitted by city residents. 



Although these reports may not reflect the actual number of rats, they provide valuable insight into trends over time. Richardson emphasized that the long-term consistency of the reporting methods used in the study lends credibility to the observed trends.



Even though Washington D.C. exhibited the highest rate of increase, Richardson clarified that this does not necessarily mean the city has the most rats overall - it simply indicates that the number of rat complaints is rising faster than in other cities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prevention-over-poison">Prevention over poison</h2>



The study's findings suggest that traditional methods of rat control, such as poisoning and trapping, may not be sufficient to combat the escalating problem. 



Instead, prevention measures appear to be more effective. In cities like New Orleans, public authorities are taking proactive steps. 



For instance, educational workshops and community campaigns focus on reducing conditions that attract rats, such as improper waste management and excess food availability.



“In New Orleans they make a big effort to get out into neighborhoods and do educational workshops and campaigns to talk to residents about what makes a property less likely to have rats,” Richardson said.



Similarly, New York City has initiated innovative strategies, including replacing street garbage bags with rat-resistant containers and forming an elite volunteer group known as the “NYC rat pack.” 



Early results from these initiatives are promising, although comprehensive data have yet to fully reflect their impact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-complex-urban-challenge">A complex urban challenge</h2>



While it is possible to better manage rat populations through improved urban planning and public education, complete eradication is unrealistic. 



As <a href="https://umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan</a> conservation scientist Neil Carter pointed out, we can fight them better, but in the end “people need to coexist with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-addresses-the-global-need-for-human-wildlife-coexistence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a> in urban environments, even with rats.”



“Zero rats is impossible," noted Richardson. “But I think an expectation that we need to live with the number of rats that we're seeing in many of these cities is also an unhealthy perspective on this problem.”



In conclusion, this study offers a critical, data-driven look at the complex factors driving rat population growth in urban environments. 



As cities continue to warm, expand, and densify, the challenge of managing rat populations will require innovative and sustainable approaches that focus on prevention and public awareness.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.ads6782" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



Image Credit: AP Photo/Mary Altaffer



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Rat populations are increasing in cities as temperatures rise

A new study reveals that rat infestations in many cities...

For many years, paleontologists believed that the fossilization process completely eradicated any original organic molecules in ancient remains.&nbsp;



Now, scientists at the University of Liverpool have discovered that some Mesozoic fossils still preserve vestiges of their original organic compounds. 



The findings shed light on how proteins like collagen may survive for millions of years within dinosaur bones.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-skepticism-to-discovery">From skepticism to discovery</h2>



The research was focused on a well-preserved hip bone from an Edmontosaurus - a duck-billed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-did-dinosaurs-come-from-missing-fossils-hold-the-secret/">dinosaur</a> excavated from the Hell Creek Formation in South Dakota. 



The fossil, weighing roughly 50 pounds (23 kilograms), is part of the University of Liverpool’s collections. 



The researchers used advanced mass spectrometry and protein sequencing to detect and analyze signs of bone collagen in the sample. 



The results contradict the long-held assumption that any organic material found in fossils must be modern contamination.



“This research shows beyond doubt that organic biomolecules, such as proteins like collagen, appear to be present in some fossils,” said Professor Steve Taylor, chair of the Mass Spectrometry Research Group at the <a href="https://www.liverpool.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Liverpool</a>.



“Our results have far-reaching implications. Firstly, it refutes the hypothesis that any organics found in fossils must result from contamination.”&nbsp;



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-dinosaur-collagen-survived-the-test-of-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">collagen</a> remnants offer a rare glimpse into dinosaur biology, opening up new questions about what biochemical information might still be gleaned from well-preserved fossils.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-molecules-survive-fossilization-nbsp">Ancient molecules survive fossilization&nbsp;</h2>



Collagen is the primary structural protein in the bones of living organisms. After millions of years, one would expect it to be replaced by minerals or otherwise degraded.&nbsp;



However, the study demonstrates that not only can collagen molecules survive fossilization but they can also remain detectable if the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-capture-a-turning-point-in-the-evolution-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> is of exceptional quality.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/dinosaur-fossil_collagen-discovery_credit-ULiverpool_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/dinosaur-fossil_collagen-discovery_credit-ULiverpool_1s.webp" alt="Edmontosaurus sp. sacrum (UOL GEO.1) from Harding County, SD, Hell Creek formation, main fragment shown. Credit: University of Liverpool" class="wp-image-1958814"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Edmontosaurus sp. sacrum (UOL GEO.1) from Harding County, SD, Hell Creek formation, main fragment shown. Credit: University of Liverpool</figcaption></figure>



The team’s analyses involved a combination of protein sequencing, tandem mass spectrometry, and imaging techniques to characterize the Edmontosaurus bone.&nbsp;



These methods allowed the experts to pinpoint markers of collagen and confirm that the protein fragments were indeed vestiges from the ancient organism.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-record-of-dinosaur-physiology-nbsp">Hidden record of dinosaur physiology&nbsp;</h2>



The discovery suggests the value of re-examining historical fossil collections for similarly overlooked molecular structures. 



Fossils previously dismissed as fully mineralized may still contain pockets of original organic material, offering a wealth of new insights.



Taylor emphasized the potential of cross-polarized light microscopy images that have been archived for decades.&nbsp;



“These images may reveal intact patches of bone collagen, potentially offering a ready-made trove of fossil candidates for further protein analysis,” said Taylor.&nbsp;



The potential to reanalyze these images with modern techniques could reveal a hidden record of dinosaur physiology, including growth rates and metabolic traits.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-dinosaur-research">Implications for dinosaur research</h2>



This breakthrough has major implications for paleontology and molecular biology. With access to ancient proteins, scientists can refine dinosaur phylogenies by comparing molecular signatures.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/dinosaur-fossil_collagen-discovery_credit-ULiverpool_2m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/dinosaur-fossil_collagen-discovery_credit-ULiverpool_2s.webp" alt="Edmontosaurus sp. sacrum (UOL GEO.1) from Harding County, SD, Hell Creek formation, main fragment shown. Credit: University of Liverpool" class="wp-image-1958816"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Edmontosaurus sp. sacrum (UOL GEO.1) from Harding County, SD, Hell Creek formation, main fragment shown. Credit: University of Liverpool</figcaption></figure>



Furthermore, experts could uncover the biochemical pathways that enabled the preservation of organic compounds over millions of years.



“The findings inform the intriguing mystery of how these proteins have managed to persist in fossils for so long,” said Taylor.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-confirming-the-presence-of-dinosaur-collagen-nbsp">Confirming the presence of dinosaur collagen&nbsp;</h2>



For the investigation, researchers from multiple institutions specialized in different analytic methods.&nbsp;



The Mass Spectrometry Research Group performed in-depth protein sequencing, while other collaborators contributed to high-resolution imaging, additional data verification, and advanced mass spectrometry.&nbsp;



These collective efforts reinforced the conclusion that the collagen was not a result of contamination, but an ancient molecular relic.



In addition, the successful detection of collagen alpha-1 fragments - one of the most fundamental protein forms in bone - came from the Center for Proteome Research at the University of Liverpool.&nbsp;



Experts at <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCLA</a> contributed tandem mass spectrometry capabilities to detect and quantify markers that definitively establish the presence of ancient collagen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions-nbsp">Future research directions&nbsp;</h2>



Even though the study resolves a long-standing debate about the possibility of finding original organic molecules in dinosaur fossils, it also opens new avenues for research.&nbsp;



By pinpointing the conditions under which these molecular remnants can remain stable, scientists might be able to target specific specimens or geological settings where surviving biomolecules are most likely to be found.



There is growing interest in how such data can illuminate dinosaur evolutionary pathways and relationships.&nbsp;



If collagen or other proteins can be consistently identified across a variety of specimens, it may become possible to conduct molecular-level comparisons between species.



Ultimately, these findings prompt reexamination of museum and field collections worldwide, suggesting that the deeper secrets of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/timeline-of-lifes-evolution-extended-by-nearly-1-5-billion-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient life</a> - once deemed lost - may still lie hidden within the fossil record.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.analchem.4c03115#" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Analytical Chemistry</a>.



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Collagen discovered in 70 million-year-old dinosaur fossil

For many years, paleontologists believed that the fossilization process completely...

Dinosaurs,In,The,Forest.,This,Is,A,3d,Render,Illustration

The story of how dinosaurs came to rule our planet has captivated scientists and the public alike for generations. Now, an intriguing new study on fossils suggests we might be looking in the wrong places for their earliest ancestors. 



While we've found countless dinosaur fossils in places like Argentina and Zimbabwe, the very first dinosaurs might have emerged from the steamy equatorial regions of ancient Earth - areas that today make up the Amazon rainforest, Congo basin, and Sahara Desert.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gap-in-the-dinosaur-fossil-record">Gap in the dinosaur fossil record</h2>



The oldest known dinosaur fossils date back around 230 million years and have been found in Argentina, Brazil, and Zimbabwe. 



However, the differences between these fossils indicate that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-tracks-discovered-on-uks-dinosaur-highway/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> had already been evolving for millions of years before these specimens emerged. This implies an even earlier origin, but direct fossil evidence of this has yet to be found.



The new study, published in the journal Current Biology, addresses this issue by using advanced modeling techniques to account for gaps in the fossil record.



The researchers analyzed fossils, evolutionary trees, and ancient geography to reconstruct the likely emergence of dinosaurs. 



Instead of assuming that fossils have not been found in certain areas because they never existed there, the study treats those regions as simply missing data.



“Dinosaurs are well studied but we still don’t really know where they came from. The fossil record has such large gaps that it can’t be taken at face value,” noted study lead author Joel Heath from <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-dinosaurs-and-their-world">First dinosaurs and their world</h2>



According to the study, the earliest dinosaurs likely appeared in western low-latitude Gondwana, a region that was hot and dry, resembling today’s deserts and savannas. This challenges the previous assumption that dinosaurs first evolved in more temperate environments. 



Despite the study’s findings, no fossils from these early dinosaurs have been discovered in the Amazon or central Africa. 



Heath suggests that this is due to a combination of accessibility issues and a lack of focused research in these regions.



The world of early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-evolved-feathers-for-much-more-than-just-flying/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> was vastly different from the one their descendants would later dominate. During the Late Triassic period, dinosaurs were only a minor part of a diverse ecosystem filled with other reptilian creatures. 



These included the ancestors of crocodiles, known as pseudosuchians, some of which grew up to 10 meters (33 feet) long. 



Another major group in this prehistoric world was pterosaurs, the first vertebrates to develop powered flight. These flying reptiles would eventually evolve into species as large as modern fighter jets.



In contrast to their massive successors like Diplodocus or Tyrannosaurus rex, the earliest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-extinction-of-dinosaurs-was-not-caused-by-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> were much smaller, typically the size of a chicken or a medium-sized dog.



They walked on two legs, making them agile hunters and scavengers, and most were likely omnivorous. Their small size and adaptability may have helped them survive in the challenging environments of early Gondwana.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-rise-of-dinosaurs">The rise of dinosaurs</h2>



For millions of years, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-triassic-fossil-gondwanax-paraisensis-may-rewrite-history-of-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> remained in the shadow of their reptilian cousins. That changed around 201 million years ago, when a series of massive volcanic eruptions led to the end-Triassic mass extinction. 



This catastrophe wiped out many of the dominant reptile species, creating an ecological vacuum that the surviving dinosaurs quickly filled. 



With their competitors gone, dinosaurs began to spread and diversify, eventually becoming the dominant land animals for the next 135 million years.



The modeling study suggests that dinosaurs and other reptiles may have first evolved in low-latitude Gondwana before spreading outward. 



They expanded southward into what is now Argentina and Zimbabwe, and northward into Laurasia, the northern supercontinent that would later split into Europe, Asia, and North America. 



This idea is supported by fossil evidence showing that some of the dinosaurs’ closest relatives, including early crocodile-like reptiles, were found in northern Laurasia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-missing-link-in-dinosaur-evolution">Missing link in dinosaur evolution</h2>



One of the study’s key findings concerns the evolutionary relationship between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-the-worlds-best-preserved-psittacosaurus-dinosaurs-die/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early dinosaurs</a> and their close relatives. There is ongoing debate about how different groups of dinosaurs evolved from their reptilian ancestors. 



To address this, the researchers tested their model against three different evolutionary trees. The strongest support for a Gondwanan origin came from a model that classified silesaurids, traditionally seen as distant cousins of dinosaurs, as direct ancestors of ornithischians.



This finding is significant because ornithischians - one of the three major dinosaur groups, which later included the stegosaurs and Triceratops species - are mysteriously absent from the fossil record in the earliest years of dinosaur history.



If silesaurids were indeed their ancestors, this would help fill a major gap in the evolutionary tree and provide a clearer picture of how dinosaurs diversified over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaurs-and-climate-adaptation">Dinosaurs and climate adaptation</h2>



The study also sheds light on how dinosaurs adapted to different climates over millions of years. “Our results suggest early dinosaurs may have been well adapted to hot and arid environments,” noted Professor Philip Mannion, a senior author of the study.



This is particularly evident in sauropods, the group that includes massive plant-eaters like Brontosaurus and Diplodocus. These dinosaurs appear to have retained their preference for warm climates, remaining in lower latitudes throughout their existence.



On the other hand, theropods - the group that includes T. rex and modern birds - and ornithischians seem to have developed the ability to generate their own body heat.



This adaptation allowed them to expand into colder regions, including the polar regions, by the time of the Jurassic period. This shift in climate tolerance may have contributed to their long-term evolutionary success.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-dinosaur-fossils">Future research on dinosaur fossils</h2>



Despite the study’s compelling findings, direct fossil evidence of the earliest dinosaurs in the Amazon, Congo, or Sahara remains absent. 



Future expeditions to these regions may uncover this elusive evidence that could redefine our understanding of dinosaur origins.



If dinosaurs did originate in equatorial Gondwana, as the study suggests, their earliest ancestors may still lie buried beneath the dense rainforests of the Amazon or the shifting sands of the Sahara. 



These areas remain some of the least-explored fossil sites on Earth, meaning that the missing chapters of dinosaur evolution may still be waiting to be revealed.



As paleontologists continue to refine their understanding of early dinosaur evolution, this study highlights the importance of exploring new frontiers in fossil research. 



The true story of dinosaur origins is still being written, and future discoveries in these regions could change everything we thought we knew about the dawn of the dinosaurs.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(24)01722-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Where did dinosaurs come from? Scientists think they figured it out

The story of how dinosaurs came to rule our planet...

In early 1920s astronomy, most researchers believed our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-ways-thin-disk-is-billions-of-years-older-than-we-thought/">Milky Way</a> was the entire universe. They assumed those faint spiral patches in the sky were just cloudy formations within our own galaxy.



Little did they know that a major twist was about to happen. After decades of tireless work, one astonishing discovery showed those spiral spots were completely separate galaxies. It changed our sense of place in the cosmos forever.



<a href="https://carnegiescience.edu/bio/dr-jeffrey-rich" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jeff Rich</a> from the Carnegie Science Observatories reminds us that science is built on collective efforts, not just the findings of individual heroes. 



"It's easy to romanticize Hubble and his discovery of the universe beyond the Milky Way galaxy," said Jeff Rich, in a press conference at the <a href="https://aas.org/meetings/aas245" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">245th meeting of the American Astronomical Society</a> in Maryland. It was fitting that Rich shared Hubble’s story at the January 2025 American Astronomical Society (AAS) meeting since, exactly a century earlier, on <a href="https://carnegiescience.edu/news/carnegie-science-celebrates-edwin-hubbles-discovery-universe" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">January 1, 1925</a>, Hubble’s paradigm-shifting findings were first presented at the AAS’s 33rd meeting in Washington, D.C.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-on-small-beginnings">Focus on small beginnings</h2>



A crucial part of this tale begins with <a href="https://infoguides.rit.edu/deafstars/leavitt" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Henrietta Swan Leavitt</a>, who examined variable stars in the <a href="https://astronomy.swin.edu.au/cosmos/s/Small+Magellanic+Cloud" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Small Magellanic Cloud</a> and <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/large-magellanic-cloud/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Large Magellanic Cloud</a>. She noticed that the brightness of certain stars changed in a predictable cycle.



These stars were eventually called <a href="https://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/StarChild/questions/cepheids.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cepheid variables</a>. Using <a href="http://www.astro.gsu.edu/lab/website/4LeavittLab-1.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leavitt’s period-luminosity relation</a>, astronomers finally had a tool to measure truly vast distances. This laid the groundwork for bigger discoveries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-puzzle-of-distance">The puzzle of distance</h2>



Around the same time, <a href="https://sciencephilanthropyalliance.org/harlow-shapley-from-a-brilliant-man-dedicated-to-science-to-a-brilliant-scientist-devoted-to-man/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harlow Shapley</a> wanted to figure out the size of the Milky Way. He used Cepheid data and another type of pulsating star, RR Lyrae, to form the first <a href="https://www.uwa.edu.au/science/-/media/Faculties/Science/Docs/Explanation-of-the-cosmic-distance-ladder.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic distance ladder</a>.



His results suggested our galaxy was large. Still, he believed these spiral smudges were part of it. He only needed a definitive measurement for one of those smudges in order to test the theory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-turning-point-at-mount-wilson">The turning point at Mount Wilson</h2>



When <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/people/edwin-hubble/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Edwin Hubble</a> arrived at Mount Wilson Observatory in California, the massive <a href="https://www.mtwilson.edu/100-telescope-observing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hooker telescope</a> was at his disposal. That powerful instrument gave him a way to spot individual stars in the Andromeda “nebula.”



Working closely with his colleague <a href="https://www.lindahall.org/about/news/scientist-of-the-day/milton-humason/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milton Humason</a>, Hubble recorded a Cepheid variable in that distant patch of light. This signaled that Andromeda was far beyond our galaxy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-letter-that-changed-everything">A letter that changed everything</h2>



Hubble calculated an approximate distance to Andromeda of more than 900,000 light-years, though modern estimates hover around 2.5 million light-years. The numbers made one thing clear: the Milky Way was not alone.



"Here is the letter that destroyed my universe," said Harlow Shapley reportedly, when he realized how this clashed with his earlier picture. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-far-we-ve-come">How far we’ve come</h2>



Not long after this, Hubble used <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/hubble/science/science-behind-the-discoveries/hubble-cosmological-redshift/">redshift</a> data gathered by <a href="https://www.roe.ac.uk/~jap/slipher/">Vesto Slipher</a> to show that most galaxies are speeding away from us. This observation fits with equations from <a href="https://www.amnh.org/learn-teach/curriculum-collections/cosmic-horizons-book/georges-lemaitre-big-bang">Georges Lemaître</a>, who framed it in a law describing cosmic expansion.



Fast forward to today, and astronomers <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/0004-637X/830/2/83/pdf">estimate</a> the universe contains about 2 trillion galaxies, each with its own unique history. All these galaxies exist beyond the star-filled swirl that we call home.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shaping-the-future">Shaping the future</h2>



A century ago, the Milky Way seemed like everything. Hubble’s work widened our view, influenced Einstein’s thinking on relativity, and fueled modern cosmology.



Scientists still rely on <a href="https://lco.global/spacebook/distance/cepheid-variable-stars-supernovae-and-distance-measurement/">Cepheid variables</a> to check cosmic distances. They use advanced telescopes to sharpen these measurements, hoping to resolve the Hubble tension about the expansion rate of our universe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glancing-ahead">Glancing ahead</h2>



The evolving story of galaxies, dark matter, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/timescape-dark-energy-doesnt-exist-causing-lumpy-universe-expansion-cmbr/">dark energy</a>, and other puzzles holds as many surprises as it did a hundred years ago. Observatories worldwide keep searching for signals that might rewrite today’s cosmic beliefs.



Hubble’s discovery shows how quickly new evidence can overturn established ideas. It also reminds us that each generation of astronomers relies on the insights and labor of those who came before.



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100 years ago: Edwin Hubble proved the Milky Way is not the only galaxy in the universe

In early 1920s astronomy, most researchers believed our Milky Way...